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FIRST  SEEIES  No.  25  FEBRUARY,  1919 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 
STUDIES 


STUDIES  IN  THE  SOCIAL 
SCIENCES 

VOLUME  VII  No.  2 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES  AND 
DELINQUENTS  IN  IOWA 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  SOURCES  OF  SOCIAL  INFECTION 

BY 

Lewis  IIenprtx  Mounts,  Pti.  D. 


PUBLISHED  BY  TIIK  UNIVERSITY,  IOWA  CITY 


Issued  monthly  throughout  the  year.  Entered  at  the  post  office  at  Iowa  City, 

Iowa,  as  second  class  matter.     Aceeptatice  for  mailing-  at  special  rate  of 

postage  provided   for  in   section    1103,   Act   of  Congress   October   .S,    1917, 

authorized  on  July  3,  1918 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 
IN  THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES 


F.  E.  Haynes,  Ph.  D,,  Editor 


VOLUME  VII  No.  2 

DEPENPENTS,  DEFECTIVES  AND 
DELINQUENTS  IN  IOWA 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  SOURCES  OF  SOCIAL  INFECTION 

BY 

Lewis  Hendrix  Mounts,  Ph.  D. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVEESITY,  IOWA  CITY 


Hi. 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  fully  explained  by  the  author  in 
the  introductory  chapter.  A  certain  amount  of  delay  in  its 
publication  has  been  unavoidable  owing  to  a  number  of  cir- 
cumstances. After  the  work  was  undertaken,  the  plan  was  re- 
vised and  enlarged,  with  the  object  of  making  the  study  as 
complete  as  possible.  ]\Iuch  of  the  statistical  material  used  does 
not  become  available  for  some  time  after  the  end  of  the  period 
which  it  covers.  Physical  conditions  due  to  the  war  period  have 
also  combined  to  prevent  its  earlier  publication. 

F.  E.  Haynes 
University  of  Iowa 
Iowa  City,  Iowa. 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

Editor's  Introduction  3 

I     Introduction  7 

II     Crime  11 

III     Inebriety  28 

IV    Juvenile  Delinquency  36 

V    Dependence  54 

VI    Defectives  67 

VII     The  Influence  of  Certain  Factors  upon  Soclil 

Infection  110 

VIII     The  Results  and  Their  Social  Significance  129 

Notes  and  References  160 


I 

INTRODUCTION 

PURPOSE  OF  THIS  STUDY 
Despite  undoubted  progress  in  many  lines  toward  human 
betterment,  society  is  as  yet  far  from  free  from  those  abnormal 
social  conditions  of  which  criminality  and  dependence  are  the 
most  conspicuous.  Through  an  analogy  between  these  and 
abnormal  physical  conditions,  the  term  social  diseases  has  come 
to  be  applied  to  them.  Their  propagation  and  transmission  is 
quite  fittingly  described  as  social  infection.  The  amelioration  of 
these  diseases  is  the  aim  of  the  social  worker.  Before  effective 
treatment  is  possible,  however,  various  preliminary  steps  are 
essential,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  location  of  the  infection  and 
the  ascertaining  of  its  causes.  The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to 
make  a  contribution  to  the  first,  and  throw  a  little  light  upon 
the  second. 

LIMITATIONS  OF  STATISTICS 
Since  this  study  covers  the  whole  State  of  Iowa  with  its 
many  counties  and  cities,  each  of  which  must  be  studied  sep- 
arately, if  it  is  to  be  scientific,  it  must  almost  of  necessity  be  a 
statistical  one.  As  such,  it  has  both  the  merits  and  the  short- 
comings characteristic  of  statistics  in  general.  For  separate 
cases  of  criminality  or  of  dependence,  there  are  both  social  and 
individual  causes,  concerning  Avhich  students  of  social  problems 
have  widely  varying  opinions.  This  study,  in  so  far  as  it  deals 
with  causes,  touches  necessarily  only  broad,  social  ones.  In  all 
statistical  work  the  element  of  chance  is  a  factor,  and  no  reliable 
results  are  possible  unless  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  items 
or  a  sufficiently  long  period  of  years  is  covered  to  eliminate  it. 
This  has  been  done  so  far  as  possible  in  this  study.  In  some 
instances,  however,  it  is  open  to  question  whether  sufficient  data 
was  obtainable  to  render  the  results  significant, 

(7) 


8  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

Even  after  reliable  statistics  have  been  obtained  over  a  long 
enough  period  to  eliminate  chance  variation,  difficulties  still  re- 
main in  regard  to  the  interpretation  of  these  figures.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  if  attempts  are  made  to  compare  individual  com- 
munities. A  town  witliout  peculiarly  serious  social  problems,  but 
strict  law  enforcement,  may  show  higher  criminal  rates  than  a 
town,  presenting  such  problems,  but  accompanied  by  lax 
enforcement  of  the  law.  A  high  dependency  rate  may  mean 
serious  poverty,  inefficiency  of  administration,  or  merely  the 
giving  of  adequate  care  to  all  dependents.  If  wide  areas  are 
considered  and  compared,  local  differences  counter-balance  one 
another,  and  reliable  results  may  be  secured  from  interpreta- 
tion ;  but  contrasts  of  individual  communities  require  much  more 
care. 

SOURCES 

One  of  the  first  discoveries  incidental  to  this  investigation  was 
the  finding  of  an  expectedly  large  amount  of  statistical  material, 
valuable  from  the  point  of  social  science,  collected  and  published 
in  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Control.  This 
board,  according  to  Iowa  law,  manages  the  State  institutions  for 
criminals,  defectives,  and  dependents,  and  has  some  slight  super- 
vision over  county  homes  and  juvenile  delinquents.  Supple- 
mentary material  has  been  found  elsewhere,  notably  in  the 
State  Auditor's  reports,  in  the  reports  of  the  State  Board  of 
Parole,  and  in  the  State  reports  on  criminal  statistics  issued 
previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  Board  of  Parole.  The  work 
of  the  investigation  has  been  largely  the  arrangement  and  the 
analysis  of  the  statistical  data  already  at  hand.  It  was,  there- 
fore, found  possible  to  cover  a  greater  length  of  time,  and  secure 
more  reliable  results  than  would  have  been  possible  had  such 
data  not  been  already  collected. 

CHARACTER  OF  STATISTICAL  DATA 

Much  caution,  however,  was  necessary  in  the  utilization  of 
these  statistics.  Some  are  far  from  being  reliable ;  others  are  by 
no  means  complete.  Sufficient  care  had  not  been  taken  in  the 
compilation  of  the  reports,  to  eliminate  in  all  cases  from  totals, 
duplications  in  number  of  commitments  incidental  to  the  trans- 
fer of  inmates  from  an  old  to  a    new    institution.      In    some 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS        9 

comparative  tables  covering  a  period  of  years,  figures  not  prop- 
erly comparable  were  used ;  in  one  case  figures  for  total  number 
of  inmates  were  used  in  a  comparative  table  of  the  number  of 
new  commitments.  For  a  considerable  per  cent  of  the  years 
covered,  two  sets  of  statistics  of  the  number  of  inmates  in  county 
homes  are  given,  and  these  do  not  agree.  Yet,  representative,  if 
not  accurate,  figures  for  a  sufficient  period  of  years  are  believed 
to  have  been  secured.  The  completeness  of  the  figures  as  to  the 
number  of  cases  before  the  juvenile  courts  is  perhaps  subject 
to  challenge. 

METHODS  USED 

The  statistics  obtained,  much  remained  to  be  done  before  their 
interpretation  was  possible.  This  will  be  better  understood  in 
view  of  the  following  facts.  In  Iowa  there  are  ninety-nine 
counties  varying  in  size  and  population,  for  each  of  which  sta- 
tistics had  to  be  secured  and  reduced  to  a  form  rendering  com- 
parison possible.  In  addition,  there  are  forty-one  towns  or  cities 
which  according  to  either  the  1905  State  Census  or  the  1910 
Federal  Census  contained  four  thousand  or  more  inhabitants. 
For  each  of  these  certain  data  was  available,  though  covering  by 
no  means  so  many  items  nor  so  long  a  term  of  years  as  the  data 
for  the  counties.  In  view  of  the  great  variations  in  population 
in  various  communities,  it  was  useless  to  use  absolute  figures  in 
comparisons.  Every  item  of  statistical  information  in  regard  to 
each  one  of  the  one  hundred  forty  communities  or  local  divis- 
ions had  to  be  reduced  to  a  rate  per  thousand,  percentage,  or 
per  capita  basis.  This,  of  course,  required  a  vast  amount  of 
mere  mechanical  mathematical  work,  care  being  taken  moreover, 
to  check  up  the  work,  and  to  eliminate  so  far  as  possible  errors 
in  calculation  which  would  render  the  results  of  the  study  un- 
trustworthy. In  calculating  rates  and  percentages,  the  popu- 
lation as  given  by  the  1910  Federal  Census  was  used  as  the 
basis,  except  in  a  few  instances  where  the  degree  of  change  in 
population  between  the  beginning  of  the  period  and  1910  ren- 
dered this  basis  too  inaccurate.^ 

In  the  rendering  of  the  long  tables  available  for  comparative 
purposes  and  in  their  interpretation  various  devices  are  used. 
Most  of  these  are  simple,  and  need  no  explanation.     Mention, 


10  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

however,  should  perhaps  be  made  of  the  coefficient  of  correla- 
tion. Some  experiments  with  Karl  Pearson's  coefficient  of  cor- 
relation led  to  the  conclusion  that  its  use  would  involve  more 
work  than  the  results  obtainable  would  warrant.  Spearman's 
'* foot-rule  formula"  for  measuring  correlation,  based  upon 
ranks  rather  than  absolute  numbers,  is  sufficiently  reliable  and 
easy  of  utilization  and  accordingly  considerable  use  has  been 
made  of  it.  This  formula  has  certain  limitations  inherent  in  its 
being  based  upon  ranks,  but  these  are  not  sufficiently  serious  to 
forbid  its  use.' 

OUTLINE  OF  STUDY 
A  general  consideration  of  the  statistics  obtained,  with  some 
slight  attempt  to  indicate  the  outstanding  features  of  the  tables, 
will  form  the  main  part  of  the  study.  Special  attention  will  be 
given  to  the  question  of  correlation  between  social  infection  and 
the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  population  in  cities.  The  data 
as  to  criminality,  inebriety,  juvenile  offenses,  dependence,  tuber- 
culosis, feeble-mindedness,  and  insanity  will  be  treated  in  order. 
This  general  consideration  will  be  followed  by  the  investigation 
of  certain  factors  which  may  throw  further  light  upon  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  statistics,  the  influence  of  race,  industrial  condi- 
tions, and  constructive  social  work. 


II 

CRIME 

SOCIAL  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  CRIME 
Society  in  its  evolution  has  at  different  periods  looked  upon 
crime  and  upon  criminals  in  very  different  ways.  In  primtive 
society,  punishment  was  merely  a  matter  of  private  vengeance, 
but  organized  society  came  more  and  more  to  intervene  between 
the  criminal  and  the  avenger  until  finally  punishment  came  to 
be  a  matter  of  the  State,  not  of  the  wronged  individuals.  A 
period  of  repression  followed,  in  which  it  was  attempted  without 
success,  to  root  out  crime  through  cruel  punishment.  Punishment 
was  almost  exclusively  capital  or  corporal,  imprisonment  being 
merely  for  temporary  detention.  Then  came  the  classical  school 
with  their  revolt  against  extreme  severity  and  their  demand 
that  the  punishment  fit  the  crime,  a  faiilty  idea,  but  a  real 
advance  over  the  earlier  practice.  Imprisonment  began  to  come 
in  as  a  method  of  punishment. 

Close  study  of  the  individual  criminal  seems  to  be  largely  due 
to  Lombroso  and  other  members  of  the  Italian  school  who  began 
their  work  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Though 
going  perhaps  to  an  extreme  in  their  emphasis  upon  individual 
characteristics  as  a  cause  of  crime,  their  work  has  been  funda- 
mental to  the  scientific  study  of  the  criminal.  The  drift  in  more 
recent  years  seems  to  be  toward  an  emphasis  upon  the  social 
causes  productive  of  crime.  According  to  this  view  the  indi- 
vidual characteristics,  which  give  the  individual  an  inclination 
toward  crime,  may  be  evidence  of  degeneracy  which  is  itself 
partly  social  in  origin.  It  is  only  upon  the  social  conditions 
tending  to  produce  crime  that  any  light  can  be  thrown  by  this 
study, 

TREATMENT  OF  CRIMINALS  IN  IOWA 
Criminal   justice   in    Iowa   is    administered   by  a  variety  of 
courts.     Those  accused  of  minor  offenses  are  tried  in  township, 

(11) 


12  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

justice  or  city  police  courts.  Those  held  for  more  serious  offenses 
are  brought  before  the  grand  jury  and,  if  indicted,  held  for  trial 
before  the  district  court.  Imprisonment  is  in  county  jails,  the 
State  reformatory,  or  the  State  penitentiary.  City  lock-ups  are 
used  for  purposes  of  temporary  detention.  The  State  penal 
institutions  have  progressive  and  efficient  management,  but  the 
same  cannot  be  said  of  the  local  jails.  There  is  little  or  no 
attempt  at  proper  separation  and  classification,  the  first  offender 
being  placed  with  habitual  criminals.  Not  infrequently  neglect, 
bad  sanitation,  and  even  brutality  are  characteristic. 

STATISTICAL  MATERIAL 

The  statistics  available  in  regard  to  crime  in  the  various  civil 
divisions  of  the  State  cover  more  points  and  are  more  reliable 
than  those  for  any  other  of  the  topics  investigated.  The  first 
source  utilized  was  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board  of 
Control.  These  give,  along  with  other  data  as  to  the  penal  insti- 
tutions, statistics  as  to  the  number  of  offenders  committed  to 
these  institutions  from  each  county  and  from  each  city  of  four 
thousand  or  over.  The  statistics  for  counties  are  complete  for 
the  fiscal  years  from  the  establishment  of  the  Board  in  1898. 
Those  of  commitments  from  cities  are  complete  except  for  two 
bienniums,  1898-1899,  and  1907-1908.  In  addition,  the  reports 
from  1909  classify  the  criminals  according  as  they  come  from 
country  districts,  small  towns,  or  cities  of  varying  size. 

Valuable  supplementary  material  is  offered  by  other  State 
reports,  notably  statistics  as  to  the  cost  of  criminal  prosecution 
and  the  number  of  criminal  convictions  in  each  county  for  each 
year  from  1898  to  1914.  For  the  years  1898-1908  this  data  is 
given  in  the  State  reports  on  criminal  statistics,  thereafter  in 
the  reports  of  the  Board  of  Parole.  Statistics  classifying  the 
criminal  convictions  for  each  county  according  to  the  seriousness 
of  the  nature  of  the  charge  are  available,  but  were  not  utilized 
in  this  study.  The  statistics  as  to  the  number  sentenced  to  penal 
institutions  are,  except  for  a  very  few  years,  not  comparable 
to  the  Board  of  Control  figures  as  to  penal  commitments :  the 
twelve-month  periods  covered  by  the  two  sets  of  figures  begin 
and  end  at  different  times  in  the  year. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       13 

The  statistics  as  to  crime  thus  obtained  will  be  considered 
under  the  following  heads :  cost  of  criminal  prosecution,  number 
of  convictions,  and  number  of  penal  commitments. 

COST  OF  CRIMINAL  PROSECUTION 
Table  I  gives  the  counties  of  the  State  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  average  per  capita  expenditure  per  year  for  criminal 
prosecution,  exclusive  of  the  salary  of  the  county  attorney.^  An 
extra  column  gives  for  comparison  the  rank  of  each  county  in 
per  cent  of  urban  population, 

TABLE  Ji 


Comparative  Table,  Per  Capita  Expenditure  for  Criminal  Prosecution  in 
Iowa  Counties  1898-1914 
(Note:  number  is  rank  of  county  in  each  case) 


County 

Average  annual  per 
capita  expenditure 
in  dollars 

Eank  of  county  in 
per  cent  of  urban 
population 

1. 

Emmet 

.852 

32 

2. 

Polk 

.790 

1 

3. 

Lee 

.409 

11 

4. 

Clinton 

.393 

8 

5. 

Mahaska 

.379 

41 

6. 

Scott 

.336 

3 

7. 

Lucas 

.335 

49 

8. 

Marshall 

.325 

16 

9. 

Monroe 

.298 

98 

10. 

Appanoose 

.295 

19 

11. 

Winneshiek 

.279 

91 

12. 

Madison 

.276 

83 

13. 
14. 

Wapello 
Linn 

.273 
.266 

9 

7 

15. 

Des  Moines 

.255 

6 

16. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.246 

13 

17. 

Hardin 

.240 

29 

18. 
19. 
20. 

Clayton 

Dubuque 

Jones 

.238 
.234 
.226 

70 

4 

40 

21. 

Keokuk 

.224 

45 

22. 

Decatur 

.219 

55 

23. 
24. 

Fayette 
Warren 

.215 
.213 

43 
31 

25. 

Montgomery 

.212 

22 

26. 

Johnson 

.209 

23 

14  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


State  of  Ion  a 

.208 

27. 

Muscatine 

,207 

28. 

Fremont 

.207 

29. 

Howard 

.205 

30. 

Boone 

.201 

31. 

Jasper 

.190 

32. 

Pottawattamie 

.185 

33. 

Davis 

.184 

34. 

Chickasaw 

.182 

35. 

Dickinson 

.169 

36. 

Plymouth 

.167 

37. 

Taylor 

.167 

38. 

Buchanan 

.166 

39. 

Tama 

.165 

40. 

Van  Buren 

.164 

41. 

Ringgold 

.164 

42. 

Benton 

.163 

43. 

Jackson 

.159 

44. 

Mills 

.158 

45. 

Floyd 

.155 

46. 

Winnebago 

.155 

47. 

Greene 

.155 

48. 

Palo  Alto 

.154 

49. 

Cass 

.147 

50. 

Crawford 

.141 

51. 

Worth 

.138 

52. 

Harrison 

.135 

53. 

Allamakee 

.135 

54. 

Marion 

.135 

55. 

Iowa 

.133 

56. 

Clay 

.132 

57. 

Adams 

.131 

58. 

Page 

.130 

59. 

Woodbury 

.129 

60. 

Wayne 

.127 

61. 

Clarke 

.126 

62. 

Louisa 

.125 

63. 

Cedar 

.124 

64. 

Carroll 

.124 

65. 

Union 

.122 

66. 

Poweshiek 

.121 

67. 

Story 

.120 

68. 

Washington 

.120 

69. 

Henry 

.113 

70. 

Hancock 

.112 

71. 

Jefferson 

.111 

72. 

Osceola 

.110 

73. 

Wright 

.109 

74. 

Pocahontas 

.109 

75. 

Franklin 

.105 

Average 

10 
89 
68 
20 

53 
12 
99 
73 
62 

61 
59 
67 
52 

72 

80 
37 
47 
27 
18 

51 
64 

58 
28 
65 

97 

48 
87 
56 
94 

79 
96 
21 
2 
38 

75 
57 
74 
33 
15 

34 
17 

50 
46 

85 

63 

82 
24 
90 
93 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       15 

5 
60 
76 
39 
95 

66 
30 
35 

71 

77 

84 
44 
69 
92 
78 

.  42 
36 
14 
54 
25 

88 
81 
86 
26 

It  will  be  seen  that  only  twenty-six  of  the  counties  have  an 
expenditure  per  capita  higher  than  the  average  for  the  State, 
while  seventy-three  have  less.  This  result  may  be  due  to  either 
of  two  reasons;  there  may  be  a  larger  number  of  counties  with 
an  extremely  low  rate,  which  would  shift  the  State  average  much 
to  one  side;  or  else  the  high  per  capita  rate  may  be  character- 
istic of  the  counties  with  large  population.  The  first  of  these 
explanations  deserves  some  consideration,  since  the  highest 
counties  have  a  rate  much  farther  above  than  the  lowest  have 
below ;  but  this  contrast  is  limited  to  the  first  five  counties,  and 
is  very  great  for  only  two.  We  are  safe  in  inferring  that  as  a 
rule  the  counties  with  the  larger  population  have  the  higher 
rate.  A  very  apparent  exception,  however,  is  that  of  Emmet, 
which,  though  very  far  down  in  the  scale  in  population,  has  the 
highest  per  capita  rate. 

The  higher  rate  for  counties  of  large  population  is  of  interest, 
because  of  its  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  effect  of  urban 
residence  upon  crime.  The  correlation  between  the  population 
of  the  counties  and  the  per  cent  living  in  towns  or  cities  is  not 


76. 

Black  Hawk 

.104 

77. 

Sac 

.104 

78. 

Ida 

.100 

79. 

Mitchell 

.100 

80. 

Audubon 

.099 

81. 

Buena  Vista 

.098 

82. 

Cherokee 

.097 

83. 

Hamilton 

.097 

84. 

Lyon 

.097 

85. 

Delaware 

.097 

86. 

Butler 

.096 

87. 

Bremer 

.092 

88. 

Guthrie 

.091 

89. 

Shelby 

.090 

90. 

Monoua 

.089 

91. 

Humboldt 

.086 

92. 

Calhoun 

.084 

93. 

Webster 

.080 

94. 

Sioux 

.074 

95. 

Dallas 

.073 

96. 

Adair 

.064 

97. 

Kossuth 

.060 

98. 

Grundy 

.059 

99. 

0  'Brien 

.052 

16  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

perfect  because  of  the  varying  area  of  counties,  the  existence  of 
large  mining  camps  or  of  rural  villages,  offering  town  conditions, 
but  it  is  close  enough  to  indicate  that  counties  with  a  high  per 
cent  of  urban  population  have  a  high  per  capita  expenditure  for 
criminal  prosecution. 

A  comparison  of  the  rank  of  the  counties  in  cost  of  criminal 
prosecution  with  their  rank  in  urban  per  cent  will  throw  further 
light  upon  tliis  Question.  Of  the  twenty-six  above  the  State 
average,  just  one-half  rank  among  the  first  twenty-six  in  per  cent 
of  urban  population.  The  normal  number  would  be  26/99ths 
of  twenty-six,  or  not  more  than  seven.  Of  the  same  twenty-six 
counties  all  but  five  come  in  the  upper  half  of  the  counties  in 
urban  population,  instead  of  the  normal  half,  or  thirteen.  A 
considerable  number  of  these,  however,  are  not  far  above  the 
median,  fifty.  In  the  upper  portion  of  the  table  there  seems  to 
be  a  definite  correlation  between  per  cent  of  urban  population 
and  per  capita  expenditure  for  criminal  prosecution. 

The  correlation  is  not  so  apparent  at  the  other  end  of  the 
table,  though  its  existence  is  not  entirely  disproved.  Of  the 
lower  twenty  counties  only  six  as  compared  to  a  normal  20/99ths 
of  twenty,  or  four,  are  included  in  the  lower  twenty  counties 
in  urban  per  cent.  Of  the  twenty,  twelve  instead  of  the  normal 
ten  come  from  the  lower  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent. 
A  possible  explanation  of  this  lesser  degree  of  correlation  may 
lie  in  the  existence  of  a  fairly  fixed  minimum  of  expense  neces- 
sary to  the  maintenance  of  any  judicial  system  independent  of 
the  number  of  cases  tried. 

The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  for  correlation  gives  .207  as 
the  coefficient  of  correlation  between  the  ranks  in  per  capita 
expenditure  and  in  urban  per  cent.  According  to  a  formula 
suggested  by  Spearman,  the  probable  error  is  .043,  about  one- 
fifth  the  coefficient.  There  seems  to  be  definite  correlation, 
though  not  very  high. 

Emmet,  Polk,  Lee,  Clinton,  and  Mahaska  counties  alone  show 
any  extreme  rate  of  expenditure.  The  location  of  Emmet  at  the 
head  of  tlie  list  is  difficult  of  explanation.  The  existence  of 
fairly  large  cities  in  the  other  counties,  notably  Des  Moines  in 
Polk  County,  render  their  high    rates    less    surprising.      The 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       17 

presence  of  a  considerable  coal  mining  population  may  help  to 
account  for  the  situation  in  Mahaska  County,  since  its  chief  city, 
Oskaloosa,  had  less  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants  in  1910.  The 
high  rank  of  Lucas  County  can  only  be  explained  by  its  prox- 
imity to  a  coal  mining  section.  Somewhat  surprising  is  the 
abnormally  low  rank  of  Woodbury,  Blatik  Hawk,  and  Webster 
counties,  despite  the  three  cities  of  Sioux  City,  Waterloo,  and 
Ft.  Dodge  in  these  counties. 

CRIMINAL  CONVICTIONS 
A  second  line  of  approach  to  the  question  of  the  comparative 
criminality  of  the  various  counties  is  through  the  statistics  as  to 
the  number  of  criminal  convictions  in  each  county.  These  are 
summarized  in  Table  II.  The  rank  of  each  county  in  urban  per 
cent  is  shown  in  a  parallel  column  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

TABLE  II- 

Comparative  Table,  Criminal  Convictions  iu   Iowa  Counties,  1898-191i 


No. 

criminal 

1  con- 

Rank  of  county 

viction 

s  per 

1,000 

iu  per 

cent  of 

County 

popula 

tion  per  yr. 

urban 

population 

1. 

Polk 

1.27 

1 

2. 

Lucas 

1.09 

49 

3. 

Cherokee 

1.07 

30 

4. 

Monroe 

1.06 

98 

5. 

Appanoose 

1.04 

19 

6. 

Mahaska 

1.02 

41 

7. 

Madison 

1.02 

8;? 

8. 

Adams 

.98 

96 

9. 

Page 

.98 

21 

10. 

Wapello 

.95 

9 

11. 

Benton 

.87 

37 

12. 

Linn 

.85 

7 

13. 

Pottawattamie 

.75 

12 

14. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.75 

13 

15. 

Jones 

.73 

40 

IG. 

Marion 

.72 

56 

17. 

Woodbury 

.72 

2 

18. 

Montgomery 

.69 

22 

19. 

Cass 

.68 

28 

20. 

Taylor 

.68 

59 

21. 

Poweshiek 

.67 

34 

22. 

Ringgold 

.67 

80 

18  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


23. 

Washington 

.64 

24. 

Dickinson 

.63 

25. 

Scott 

.62 

26. 

Clarke 

.62 

27. 

Guthrie 

.61 

28. 

Howard 

.61 

29. 
30. 

Story 
Boone 

.59 
.59 

31. 

Fayette 

.57 

State  of  Iowa 

.57 

32. 

Union 

.56 

33. 

Mills 

.56 

34. 

Van  Buren 

.56 

35. 

Harrison 

.53 

36. 

Tama 

.53 

37. 

Fremont 

.52 

38. 
39. 

Jasper 
Marshall 

.51 
.50 

40. 

Hardin 

.49 

41. 
42. 
43. 

Wayne 

Clay 

Winnebago 

.48 
.47 
.46 

44. 

Pocahontas 

.46 

45. 

Chickasaw 

.46 

46. 

Muscatine 

.45 

47. 

Black  Hawk 

.45 

48. 

Lee 

.45 

49. 

Clinton 

.44 

50. 

Webster 

.44 

51. 

Mitchell 

.43 

52. 
53. 

Wright 
Decatur 

.43 
.43 

54. 

0  'Brian 

.42 

55. 

Kossuth 

.42 

56. 
57. 
58. 

Floyd 

Dubuque 

Winneshiek 

.42 
.42 
.41 

59. 

Monona 

.41 

60. 

Clayton 

.41 

61. 

Des  Moines 

.41 

62. 

Audubon 

.39 

63. 

Humboldt 

.39 

64. 

Calhoun 

.38 

65. 

Sac 

.38 

66. 

Keokuk 

.38 

67. 

Palo  Alto 

.37 

68. 

Jefferson 

.37 

69. 

Cedar 

.37 

70. 

Warren 

.37 

50 

62 

3 

75 
69 
68 
17 
20 

43 

Average 

15 
27 
72 
48 

52 
89 
53 
16 
29 
38 
79 
51 
90 
73 

10 

5 
11 

8 
14 

39 
24 
55 
26 

81 

18 

4 

91 

78 
70 

6 
95 
42 
36 
60 

45 
58 
63 
74 
31 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       19 


71. 

Buchanan 

.36 

72. 

Crawford 

.35 

73. 

Dallas 

.35 

74. 

Hancock 

.35 

75. 

Henry 

.34 

76. 

Louisa 

.34 

77. 

Grundy 

.34 

78. 

Iowa 

.33 

79. 

Emmet 

32 

80. 

Delaware 

.30 

81. 

Jackson 

.30 

82. 

Plymouth 

.30 

83. 

Franklin 

.29 

84. 

Johnson 

.28 

85. 

Carroll 

.28 

86. 

Greene 

.28 

87. 

Osceola 

.28 

88. 

Hamilton 

.28 

89. 

Buena  Vista 

.27 

90. 

Bremer 

.27 

91. 

Adair 

.27 

92. 

Davis 

.26 

93. 

Worth 

.26 

94. 

Butler 

.25 

95. 

Shelby 

.25 

96. 

Ida 

.18 

97. 

Lyon 

.18 

98. 

Allamakee 

.18 

99. 

Sioux 

.16 

67 
65 
25 
85 
46 

57 

86 
94 
32 

77 

47 
61 
93 
23 
33 

64 

82 
35 
66 
44 
88 
99 
97 
84 
92 


71 

87 
54 


As  in  Table  I,  the  State  average  is  in  the  upper  third  of  the 
counties,  between  numbers  31  and  32.  Two  explanations  have 
already  been  suggested  for  such  a  situation :  ( 1 )  more  extreme 
variation  above  the  average  than  below,  and  (2)  the  larger 
population  of  the  counties  of  high  rate.  The  first  of  these  would 
seem  to  have  little  weight,  the  range  above  being  .70  a.s  compared 
to  .40  below,  and  more  than  half  of  this  larger  range  is  limited  to 
one  county,  Polk,  The  counties  above  the  State  average  should 
have  the  larger  population  and  should  be  the  counties  of  high 
per  cent  of  urban  population. 

The  counties  at  the  extremes  of  the  table  will  therefore  be 
studied  more  closely  in  regard  to  this  point.  Of  the  thirty-one 
above  the  State  average,  fourteen  come  within  the  upper  thirty- 
one  counties  in  urban  per  cent  as  contrasted  with  a  normal 
31/99ths  or  ten.  Of  the  same  thirty-one,  instead  of  a  normal  of 
sixteen,  we  find  twenty-four  come  from  the  upper  half  of  the 


20  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

counties  in  nrban  per  cent.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  th  e 
counties  with  high  rates  of  criminal  convictions  contain  an 
unusual  proportion  of  those  with  a  high  per  cent  of  urban 
population. 

For  comparison,  the  lower  twenty  counties  were  also  studied. 
Of  this  number,  nine  as  contrasted  with  a  normal  of  four  are 
included  in  the  lower  twenty  in  per  cent  of  urban  population. 
Of  the  twenty,  fifteen  come  from  the  lower  half  in  per  cent  of 
urban  population,  the  normal  proportion  being  ten. 

This  analysis  of  the  ranks  of  the  counties  in  the  two  tables 
certainly  gives  a  basis  for  a  conclusion  as  to  the  existence  of 
actual  correlation  between  the  criminal  conviction  rate  and  the 
per  cent  of  urban  population.  The  use  of  Spearman's  formula 
gives  .233  as  the  coefficient  of  correlation,  the  probable  error 
being  .043,  strong  confirmatory  evidence. 

Looking  now  at  the  individual  counties,  we  are  not  surprised 
to  note  the  position  of  Polk  County.  Its  high  rank  in  the  cost 
of  criminal  prosecution  would  cause  us  to  expect  this  result. 
Remarkable,  however,  is  the  contrast  in  the  case  of  Emmet 
County,  first  in  per  capita  expense  for  criminal  prosecution,  but 
seventy-ninth  in  rate  of  criminal  convictions.  Industrial  con- 
ditions are  probably  responsible  largely  for  the  rank  of  the  next 
few  counties,  Monroe,  Appanoose,  and  Mahaska,  all  alike  hav- 
ing a  far  larger  proportion  of  their  population  engaged  in  coal 
mining  than  have  any  other  counties  in  the  State.  The  rank  of 
Lucas  and  Cherokee  is  more  difficult  of  explanation.  Lucas 
Count}',  as  already  noted,  is  located  on  the  edge  of  a  coal  min- 
ing district,  and  contains  some  mines,  and  so  may  be  somewhat 
affected  by  the  conditions  surrounding  them.  Notable  at  the 
other  end  of  the  table  is  the  low  rank  of  Muscatine,  Black 
Hawk,  Lee,  Clinton,  Webster,  Des  Moines  and  Johnson  coun- 
ties, when  we  consider  their  high  rank  in  per  cent  of  urban 
population. 

PENAL  OFFENSES 
More  important  no  doubt  than  either  the  cost   of  criminal 
prosecution,  or  the  mere  number  of  convictions,  is  the  question 
of  the  seriousness  of  the  offenses.     Our  best  source  of  material 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       21 

on  this  subject  is  the  statistics  of  the  Board  of  Control  as  to 
commitments  from  the  various  counties  and  cities  to  our  penal 
institutions.  These  statistics  have  been  summarized  for  the 
counties  in  the  following  table  which  includes  as  in  previous 
tables  comparative  rank  in  per  cent  of  urban  population. 


TABLE  III" 

a  rat 

ive  Table,  Penal  Commitmeuts  from 

Iowa  Counties,  1898-19 

County 

No.  per  1,000 
population 

Rank  of  county 
in  per  cent  of 

urban  poiHilation 

1. 

Polk 

10.06 

1 

2. 

Mills 

6.89 

27 

3. 

Pottawattamie 

6.52 

12 

4. 

Linn 

5.83 

7 

5. 

Wapello 

5.64 

9 

6. 

Woodbury 

5.13 

2 

7. 

Mahaska 

4.96 

41 

8. 

Chickasaw 

4.81 

73 

9. 

Scott 

4.78 

3 

10. 

Union 

4.69 

15 

11. 

Monroe 

4.33 

98 

12. 

Des  Moines 

4.32 

6 

13. 

Jones 

4.30 

40 

14. 

Clarke 

4.28 

75 

15. 

Lee 

4.14 

11 

16. 

Cerro  Gordo 

4.08 

13 

17. 

Lucas 

4.04 

49 

18. 

Fremont 

3.97 

89 

19. 

Marshall 

3.90 

16 

20. 

Osceola 

3.78 

82 

21. 

Madison 

3.71 

83 

22. 

Adams 

3.64 

96 

23. 

Dickinson 

3.56 

62 

24. 
25. 

Montgomery 
Webster 

3.49 
3.47 

22 
14 

26. 

Cass 

3.47 

28 

27. 

Muscatine 

3.42 

10 

28. 
29. 

Page 
Plymouth 

3.37 
3.37 

21 
61 

State  of  Iowa 

3M 

Average 

30. 

Benton 

3.28 

37 

31. 

Crawford 

3.14 

65 

32. 

Black  Hawk 

3.12 

5 

33. 

Clinton 

3.02 

8 

22  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


34. 

Appanoose 

3.00 

35. 

Clayton 

2.97 

36. 

Fayette 

2.94 

37. 

Dubuque 

2.87 

38. 

Cherokee 

2.87 

39. 

J  ohnson 

2.86 

40. 

Keokuk 

2.84 

41. 

Boone 

2.82 

42. 

Wayne 

2.66 

43. 

Poweshiek 

2.65 

44. 

Kinggold 

2.63 

45. 

Marion 

2.61 

46. 

Palo  Alto 

2.60 

47. 

Calhoun 

2.57 

48. 

Winneshiek 

2.53 

49. 

Jasper 

2.52 

50. 

Harrison 

2.46 

51. 

Mitchell 

2.46 

52. 

Washington 

2.41 

53. 

Carroll 

2.39 

54. 

Greene 

2.37 

55. 

Louisa 

2.33 

56. 

Taylor 

2.33 

57. 

Jefferson 

2.32 

58. 

Dallas 

2.29 

59. 

Wright 

2.28 

60. 

Decatur 

2.20 

61. 

Henry 

2.20 

62. 

Hardin 

2.20 

63. 

Warren 

2.09 

64. 

O'Brien 

2.09 

65. 

Story 

2.03 

66. 

Buena  Vista 

2.00 

67. 

Van  Buren 

2.00 

68. 

Cedar 

1.07 

69. 

Monona 

1.92 

70. 

Clay 

1.88 

71. 

Buchanan 

1.87 

72. 

Howard 

1.86 

73. 

Sac 

1.81 

74. 

Worth 

1.81 

75. 

Humboldt 

1.81 

76. 

Lyon 

L78 

77. 

Jackson 

1.74 

78. 

Guthrie 

1.73 

79. 

Iowa 

1.68 

80. 

Ida 

1.68 

81. 

Winnebago 

1.59 

82. 

Audubon 

1.58 

19 

70 

43 
4 
30 
23 
45 

20 
38 
34 
80 
56 

58 
36 
91 
53 

48 

39 
60 
33 

64 
57 

59 
63 
25 
24 
55 

46 
29 
31 
26 
17 

66 
72 

74 
78 
79 

67 
68 
60 
97 
42 

71 
47 
69 
94 
76 

51 
95 


83. 

Emmet 

1.53 

84. 

Kossuth 

1.50 

85. 

Bremer 

1.45 

86. 

Tama 

1.44 

87. 

Pocahontas 

1.35 

88. 

Hamilton 

1.35 

89. 

Sioux 

1.34 

90. 

Delaware 

1.29 

91. 

Butler 

1.29 

92. 

Adair 

1.25 

93. 

Hancock 

1.10 

94. 

Davis 

1.05 

95. 

Floyd 

1.05 

96. 

Shelby 

.97 

97. 

Allamakee 

.92 

98. 

Grundy 

.88 

99. 

Franklin 

.88 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      23 

32 
81 
44 

52 
90 
35 
54 

77 

84 
88 
85 
99 
18 

92 

87 
86 
93 

Again  the  State  average  is  within  the  upper  third  of  the 
counties,  so  that  but  twenty-nine  counties  have  a  rate  of  penal 
commitment  above  the  State  average,  while  seventy  are  below. 
Crime  seems  to  center  in  certain  localities.  A  comparison  of 
the  range  above  and  below,  7.70  above  and  2.58  below  shows  a 
remarkable  contrast,  but  the  elimination  of  Polk  County  changes 
this  greatly,  giving  3.53  and  2.58  as  the  comparative  range. 
Though  this  wide  range  above  the  average  evidently  in  part  at 
least  accounts  for  the  high  State  average,  there  would  seem  to 
be  still  some  probability  of  concentration  in  the  counties  of 
larger  population  and,  as  a  corollary  to  that,  in  those  of  higher 
urban  per  cent. 

Investigation  of  the  upper  twenty-nine  counties  with  this 
question  in  mind  shows  that  in  their  number,  instead  of  the 
normal  eight  and  fifteen  from  the  upper  twenty-nine  and  the  up- 
per half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent,  we  find  seventeen  and 
twenty  from  these  respectively.  The  lower  twenty  counties 
show  clearly  the  same  tendency.  They  contain  from  the  lower 
twenty  and  the  lower  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent,  ten 
and  sixteen  respectively,  instead  of  the  normal  four  and  ten. 
This  evidence  of  correlation  between  the  rate  of  penal  commit- 
ments and  the  urban  per  cent  is  confirmed  by  the  use  of  Spear- 
man's "foot  rule  measure",  which  gives  .390  as  the  coefficient 
of  correlation,  with  a  probable  error  of  only  .043. 

In  this  connection  Table  IV  is  of  significance. 


24 


UNIVERSITY  OP  IOWA  STUDIES 


TABLE  IV' 


Number  of  Penal  Commitments,   1909-1914 
Rural  or  urban  No.  per  1000 

Division  of  population 


Country 

Villages  and  towns 
Towns  2000-4000 
Towns   4000-8000 
Cities  8000-25000 
Cities  25000  and  o' 


.22 
1.31 
2.13 
1.32 
1.58 
1.79 


The  table  is  in  the  main  self-explanatory.  The  abnormally 
low  rate  from  the  country  stands  out  most  prominently.  The 
great  contrast  is  clearly  between  conditions  in  the  open  country 
and  those  in  the  villages,  rather  than  between  the  villages  and 
the  cities.  The  fact  that  the  maximum  rate  is  for  towns  of  two 
thousand  to  four  thousand  is  the  most  surprising  feature.  A 
possible  explanation  is  the  greater  likelihood  of  detection  and 
arrest  of  a  criminal  in  towns  of  that  size  than  in  the  larger  cities. 
Perhaps  the  fact  that  these  towns  are  rather  on  the  borderline 
may  in  part  explain.  In  them  the  really  serious  problems  of 
urban  life  begin  to  appear,  but  they  are  too  small  for  the  ade- 
quate support  of  the  agencies  developed  in  larger  cities  to  meet 
these  problems.  Frequently  residents  of  such  towns  may  not 
realize  that  any  serious  social  problems  exist  and  neglect  is  the 
result. 

The  conclusion  that  an  undue  proportion  of  our  penal  offend- 
ers come  from  cities  is  borne  out  by  the  following  table,  giving 
the  penal  rank  of  all  Iowa  cities  of  over  four  thousand  popula- 
tion, for  the  years  1901-1906,  and  1909-1914. 


TABLE  V« 
Comparative  Table,  Penal  Commitments  from  Cities  of  Iowa 


Rank  of 

County  it  Co.  in  No 

No. 

per  1,000 

Rai 

ik   in 

which     Commit- 

City 

po 

pulation 

l>oi 

Illation 

located     ments 

1. 

Oskaloosa 

8.13 

18 

Mahaska              7 

2. 

Des  Moines 

6.55 

1 

Polk                     1 

.-{. 

Atlantic 

6.36 

34 

Cass                    26 

4. 

Chariton 

5.71 

41 

Lucas                 17 

5. 

Ccnterville 

5.58 

20 

Appanoose         34 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      25 


6. 

Marion 

5.45 

35 

Linn 

4 

7. 

Red    Oak 

4.97 

31 

Montgomery 

24 

8. 

Clarinda 

4.91 

40 

Page 

28 

9. 

Ottumwa 

4.83 

10 

Wapello 

5 

10. 

Creston 

4.33 

21 

Union 

10 

11. 

Sioux   City 

4.22 

2 

Woodbury 

6 

12. 

Mason  City 

4.05 

15 

Cerro  Gordo 

16 

13. 

Cedar  Rapids 

4.00 

5 

Linn 

4 

14. 

Council  Bluffs 

3.95 

6 

Pottawattamie    3 

15. 

Marshalltown 

3.74 

14 

Marshall 

19 

16. 

Bobne 

3.09 

16 

Boone 

41 

17. 

Shenandoah 

3.09 

27 

Page 

28 

18. 

Muscatine 

3.03 

11 

Muscatine 

27 

19. 

Davenport 

2.98 

3 

Scott 

9 

20. 

Le  Mars 

2.89 

38 

Plymouth 

29 

21. 

Newton 

2.86 

33 

Jasper 

49 

22. 

Keokuk 

2.78 

13 

Lee 

15 

23. 

Fort  Dodge 

2.75 

12 

Webster 

25 

24. 

Iowa  City 

2.60 

17 

Johnson 

39 

25. 

Burlington 

2.54 

9 

Des  Moines 

12 

26. 

Fort  Madison 

2.25 

19 

Lee 

15 

27. 

Clinton 

2.23 

8 

Clinton 

33 

28. 

Dubuque 

2.21 

4 

Dubuque 

37 

29. 

Waterloo 

2.16 

7 

Black  Hawk 

32 

30. 

Webster   City 

2.12 

24 

Hamilton 

88 

31. 

Washington 

2.08 

36 

Washington 

52 

32. 

Grinnell 

2.02 

25 

Poweshiek 

43 

33. 

Albia 

1.96 

29 

Monroe 

11 

34. 

Fairfield 

1.81 

28 

Jefferson 

57 

35. 

Charles  City 
State  of  lotva 

1.73 

1.54 

23 

Floyd 

95 

36. 

Perry 

1.51 

32 

Dallas 

58 

37. 

Glenwood 

1.51 

39 

Mills 

2 

38. 

Oelwein 

1.16 

22 

Fayette 

36 

39. 

Cedar  Falls 

1.00 

26 

Black  Hawk 

32 

40. 

Ames 

.77 

37 

Story 

65 

41. 

Cherokee 

.000 

30 

Cherokee 

38 

Of  the  forty-one  cities  enumerated,  thirty-five  have  a  rate 
above  the  State  average,  a  vivid  contrast  with  tiie  counties  as 
shown  in  Table  III,  of  which  only  twenty-nine  out  of  ninety- 
nine  had  a  rate  above  that  for  the  State  as  a  whole.  Only  six 
cities  of  quite  small  size  have  a  rate  below  the  State  average. 

This  comparative  high  city  rate  may  be  due  to  different 
causes.  It  may  mean  that  city  life  is  more  attractive  to  the 
criminally  inclined  and  they  move  there  from  the  rural  com- 


26  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

munity.  Quite  possibly  it  means  that  the  city  environment 
puts  a  greater  strain  upon  the  individuals  witli  an  inborn  tend- 
ency towards  crime,  and  so  they  become  criminals  in  the  city 
whereas  in  the  country  they  might  remain  law-abiding.  Only 
slight  correlation,  however,  seems  to  exist  between  the  size  of 
the  city  and  the  penal  rate.  Spearman's  formula  gives  a  coef- 
ficient of  correlation  of  .118  with  a  probable  error  of  .067. 
There  probably  is  slight  correlation,  but  our  statistics  furnish 
no  conclusive  evidence.  The  investigator  is  disposed  to  reject 
as  entirely  untenable  any  theory  that  lack  of  law  enforcement 
accounts  for  the  low  rate  in  country  districts.  This  may  be 
true  of  minor  offenses,  but  certainly  not  of  penal  crimes. 

A  study  of  the  rank  in  penal  rate  of  the  thirty-seven  counties 
in  which  these  forty-one  cities  are  located  is  illuminating.  Of 
the  thirty-seven,  twenty-six  come  within  the  upper  thirty-seven 
counties  in  penal  rate.  Of  the  remaining  eleven,  only  two  con- 
tain cities  of  over  six  thousand  population  and  these  counties, 
Johnson  and  Boone,  rank  thirty-ninth  and  forty-first  respect- 
ively in  penal  rate.  The  low  rate  of  the  other  counties  can  be 
explained  by  the  small  proportion  each  city  forms  of  its  coun- 
ty's population. 

A  study  of  the  rank  of  individual  counties  in  Table  III 
shows  Polk  again  at  the  top  with  a  rate  far  above  that  of  any 
other  county — more  than  forty-five  per  cent  above  that  of  the 
second  in  order.  This  can  only  be  explained  by  the  presence 
of  Des  ]\Ioines,  the  one  really  large  city  of  the  State.  Reference 
to  Table  V,  however,  shows  the  rate  of  Des  Moines  itself  to  be 
exceeded  by  that  of  one  other  city,  Oskaloosa,  though  the  Des 
Moines  rate  is  high.  The  abnormally  high  rate  of  Polk  County 
is  due  more  to  its  abnormally  high  per  cent  of  urban  population 
than  to  an  abnormally  high  rate  for  the  city  itself.  The  pres- 
ence of  a  mining  population  is  one  factor  in  explaining  the 
high  rate  for  Mahaska  and  Monroe  counties,  and  to  a  lesser  de- 
gree of  Wapello ;  it  is  also  one  of  the  factors  present  in  Polk  as 
well.  This  may  be  a  large  factor  in  explaining  the  high  rates 
for  Oskaloosa  and  Centerville  in  Table  V.  Mills  County  has  a 
fairly  high  urban  per  cent  and  is  not  far  from  the  cities  of 
Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha.     The  remaining  counties  of  notably 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      27 

high  rank  have  either  large  cities  or  relatively  high  urban  per 
cent.  No  county  containing  a  large  city  shows  a  very  low  rank 
in  this  table  as  was  the  case  in  the  table  for  cost  of  criminal 
prosecution  and  for  number  of  criminal  convictions. 

Statistical  evidence,  both  for  all  offenses  and  for  the  more 
serious  offenses,  goes  to  show  that  urban  communities  have 
worse  records  than  have  rural  communities.  Little  parallel 
evidence  from  other  States  is  available.  Mr.  Kneeland  in 
his  discussion  of  Commercialized  Prostitution  in  New  York 
shows  that  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  the  inmates  of  in- 
stitutions for  fallen  women  come  from  urban  centers  than  from 
rural  districts.^  According  to  a  special  report  issued  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Census  of  males  committed  to  prisons 
or  jails  of  any  type,  only  6.8  per  cent  were  engaged  in  any 
form  of  agriculture,  stock-raising  or  lumbering.^"  Yet  accord- 
ing to  the  1910  United  States  Census,  29.3  per  cent  of  the  male 
population  above  ten  years  of  age  was  engaged  in  some  one  of 
these  occupations.  A  larger  per  cent  of  major  offenders  than  of 
minor,  13.5  per  cent  as  compared  with  5.6  per  cent,  came  from 
these  occupations,  yet  even  this  larger  per  cent  of  major  offenses 
is  disproportionately  low,  less  than  half  a  normal  proportion.^^ 
The  evidence  available  then  seems  to  corroborate  the  findings 
for  Iowa  showing  crime  more  urban  than  rural.  The  results 
for  Iowa  do  not,  however,  indicate  that  niral  criminality  is 
proportionately  of  a  more  serious  type  than  urban. 


Ill 

INEBRIETY 

JUSTIFICATION  OF  STUDY  OF  INEBRIETY 
Whether  the  inebriate  is  primarily  a  delinquent  or  a  defective, 
he  is  at  least  near  the  border  line  between  the  two.  In  ordinary 
legal  procedure,  he  is  commonly  treated  as  a  delinquent,  and 
80  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  consider  him  at  this  point  in 
this  study.  It  is  evident  that  he  is  the  product  to  a  considerable 
degree  of  the  same  unwholesome  social  conditions  as  the  delin- 
quent and  the  dependent,  and  the  inclusion  of  the  study  of  the 
inebriate  will  give  us  another  angle  of  approach  to  our  problem. 
It  might  be  added  that  drunkenness  is  frequently  looked  upon 
from  two  points  of  view  in  its  relation  to  crime  and  dependence, 
either  as  a  prime  factor  in  the  production  of  crime  and  poverty, 
or  as  a  product  of  the  same  forces  that  produce  them.  There  is 
certainly  considerable  reason  for  each  view.  Either,  however, 
would  justify  the  study  of  the  inebriate. 

DANGERS  OF  MISINTERPRETATION 

Statistics  about  inebriety  are  perhaps  more  subject  to  misin- 
terpretation than  any  of  the  others  discussed  in  this  paper  and 
the  danger  is  increased  by  the  great  popular  interest  in  and 
strong  feeling  upon  the  liquor  question.  The  figures  given  in 
this  chapter  can  not  fairly  be  used  as  a  basis  for  contrasting  the 
amount  of  intoxication  in  one  community  with  that  in  another. 
There  are  in  the  first  place  dangers  involved  in  any  such  compar- 
ison, because  of  the  great  variation  among  communities  in  regard 
to  strictness  of  law  enforcement.  Probably  in  no  sphere  is  this 
variation  greater  than  in  various  aspects  of  the  liquor  question. 
In  the  second  place  the  statistics  are  for  inehriety  and  not  for 
intoxication.  The  inebrite  has,  in  most  cases,  become  so  gripped 
by  the  habit  that  he  will  secure  liquor  whether  he  lives  in  a  town 
with  open  saloons  or  not. 

(28) 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       29 

Intoxication  is  a  much  broader  problem.  The  Cosson  Com- 
mittee report  of  1912  estimated  that  of  all  arrests  in  Iowa,  on 
the  average  from  46  to  52  per  cent  of  the  number  are  for  in- 
toxication, while  in  some  counties  the  number  rises  as  high  as 
65  per  cent.'-^'  For  an  estimate  of  the  comparative  amount  of 
intoxication  in  different  communities,  a  study  should  be  made 
of  the  number  of  arrests,  not  the  number  of  inebriate  commit- 
ments nor  even  the  number  of  criminal  convictions,  since  these 
cover  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  problem.  In  1908  there  were 
4800  commitments  to  the  Polk  County  jail  alone,  and  only  1113 
criminal  convictions  for  the  whole  State.  In  the  third  place, 
those  addicted  to  the  drug  habit  as  well  as  to  the  liquor  habit 
are  included  among  those  committed  to  the  State  hospitals  for 
inebriates,  and  this  would  militate  against  any  valid  conclu- 
sions as  to  how  individual  communities  compared  in  the  exces- 
sive use  of  liquor." 

MATERIAL  AVAILABLE 
The  material  available  for  this  study  is  parallel  in  all  partic- 
ulars to  that  already  used  in  the  study  of  penal  commitments, 
except  for  the  years  covered.  The  State  Board  of  Control  re- 
ports give  figures  for  counties  for  the  entire  period  since  the 
opening  of  the  first  hospital  for  inebriates  in  1903.  For  cities, 
figures  are  available  except  for  the  1907-1908  biennium.  Ex- 
amination showed,  however,  that  the  figures  for  the  years  1903 
and  1906  were  useless  for  the  purpose  of  this  study  owing  to 
failure  to  eliminate  duplications  arising  from  transfers  of  pa- 
tients to  newly  opened  hospitals.  The  figures  for  these  years 
were  accordingly  rejected. 

INEBRIATE  HOSPITAL  COMMITMENTS 
The  statistics  as  to  commitments  to  the  State  hospitals  for 
inebriates  from  the  several  counties  are  summarized  in  Table 
VI. 


30 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 
TABLE  VI^* 


Comparative  Table,  Commitments  to  State  Hospitals  for  Inebriates  from 
Iowa  Counties,  1904,  1905,  1907-1914 


County 


1. 

Polk 

4.93 

2. 

Wapello 

4.29 

3. 

Winneshiek 

3.59 

4. 

Linn 

3.19 

5. 

Webster 

2.93 

6. 

Palo  Alto 

2.74 

7. 

Wayne 

2.66 

8. 

Lee 

2.59 

9. 

Carroll 

2.49 

10. 

Chickasaw 

2.41 

11. 

Sac 

2.23 

12. 

Fayette 

2.22 

13. 

Woodbury 

2.19 

14. 

Johnson 

2.16 

15. 

Black  Hawk 

2.14 

16. 

Mahaska 

2.04 

17. 

Hamilton 

1.92 

18. 

Story 

1.91 

19. 

Jefferson 

1.88 

20. 

Clayton 

1.88 

21. 

Dickinson 

1.84 

22. 

Marshall 

1.82 

23. 

Humboldt 

1.81 

24. 

Boone 

1.77 

25. 

Pottawattamie 

1.76 

26. 

Marion 

1.74 

27. 

Hardin 

1.72 

28. 

Lucas 

1.69 

29. 

Plymouth 

1.69 

30. 

Ida 

1.68 

State  of  Iowa 

1.62 

31. 

Harrison 

1.60 

32. 

Appanoose 

1.50 

33. 

Sioux 

1.49 

34. 

Keokuk 

1.42 

35. 

Scott 

1.40 

36. 

Union 

1.38 

37. 

Kossuth 

1.37 

38. 

Franklin 

1.35 

39. 

Pocahontas 

1.35 

40. 

Madison 

1.34 

Rank  of  county 
No.  of  commitments  in  per  cent  of 
per  1,000  population    urban  population 

1 

9 

91 

7 
14 


58 
38 
11 
33 
73 

60 
43 

2 
23 

5 

41 
35 
17 
63 
70 

62 
16 
42 
20 
12 

56 
29 
49 
61 
76 


Average 

48 
19 
54 
45 


15 

81 
93 
90 
83 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       31 


41. 

Dallas 

1.31 

42. 

Cerro  Gordo 

1.28 

43. 

Vau  Buren 

1.26 

44. 

Cherokee 

1.25 

45. 

Poweshiek 

1.22 

46. 

Decatur 

1.22 

47. 

Fremont 

L22 

48. 

Clay 

1.18 

49. 

Butler 

1.17 

50. 

Beuton 

1.17 

51. 

Allamakee 

1.15 

52. 

Delaware 

1.12 

53. 

Lyon 

1.09 

54. 

Tama 

1.08 

55. 

Davis 

1.05 

56. 

Jasper       • 

1.04 

57. 

Audubon 

1.03 

58. 

Monroe 

1.02 

59. 

Osceola 

1.00 

60. 

Montgomery 

.96 

61. 

Cedar 

.96 

62. 

Bremer 

.95 

63. 

Calhoun 

.94 

64. 

Guthrie 

.92 

65. 

Emmet 

.92 

66. 

Page 

.92 

67. 

Crawford 

.90 

68. 

Mills 

.88 

69. 

Muscatine 

.88 

70. 

O.Brien 

.87 

71. 

Jackson 

.85 

72. 

Grundy 

.81 

73. 

Jones 

.79 

74. 

Hancock 

.79 

75. 

Clinton 

.77 

76. 

Clarke 

.75 

77. 

Dubuque 

.71 

78. 

Iowa 

.71 

79. 

Washington 

.70 

80. 

Henry 

.64 

81. 

Louisa 

.62 

82. 

Worth 

.60 

83. 

Cass 

.58 

84. 

Buena  Vista 

.56 

85. 

Greene 

.56 

86. 

Wright 

.56 

87. 

Buchanan 

.56 

88. 

Adair 

.55 

89. 

Floyd 

.53 

90. 

Mitchell 

.52 

25 
13 
72 
30 
34 

55 
89 
79 
84 
37 

87 
77 
71 
52 
99 

53 
95 
98 
82 
22 

74 
44 
36 
69 
32 

21 
65 
27 
10 
26 

47 
86 
40 
85 


75 

4 
94 
50 
46 

57 
97 
28 
66 
64 

24 
67 
88 
18 
39 


32  UNIVERSITY  OF  lOAVA  STUDIES 


91. 

Winnebago 

.50 

92. 

Des  Moines 

.50 

93. 

Ringgold 

.46 

94. 

Shelby 

.42 

95. 

AdaniH 

.36 

96. 

Monona 

.36 

97. 

Taylor 

.25 

98. 

Howard 

.23 

99. 

Warren 

.16 

51 

6 
80 
92 
96 


59 

68 
31 


As  usual  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  counties  have  a  rate 
higher  than  the  State  average,  thirty  in  this  ease,  as  opposed 
to  sixty-nine  with  a  lower  rate.  The  range,  however,  above  is 
more  than  twice  that  below,  3.31  to  1.46.  This  great  contrast, 
however,  is  limited  largely  to  the  extreme  counties.  With  three 
counties  eliminated  at  the  top  and  three  at  the  bottom,  the  con- 
trast becomes  small,  1.57  above  to  1.26  below.  Extreme  con- 
centration does  not  exist  to  a  great  enough  degree,  it  seems,  to 
account  for  the  location  of  the  State  average ;  the  only  other 
explanation  is  large  population  in  the  counties  with  high  rate, 
i.  e.,  concentration  in  counties  with  high  urban  per  cent.  Ex- 
amination of  the  table  tends  to  confirm  this  conclusion,  though 
the  case  is  not  as  strong  as  in  previous  tables.  In  the  absence 
of  any  correlation,  we  would  normally  find  within  the  first 
thirty  of  this  series,  about  three-tenths  of  any  part  of  any  other 
series  in  which  the  ninety-nine  counties  might  be  grouped,  i.  e., 
nine  from  the  first  thirty,  fifteen  from  the  upper  half.  The 
first  thirty  counties,  however,  in  this  table  include  thirteen  of 
the  fii*st  thirty  counties  in  urban  per  cent  and  twenty  of  the 
upper  half. 

A  similar  situation  exists  at  the  other  end  of  the  table.  In- 
stead of  the  normal  four,  the  twenty  counties  include  five  of  the 
twenty  counties  lowest  in  urban  per  cent  and  thirteen  of  the 
lower  half  of  the  counties  in,  urban  per  cent  instead  of  the  nor- 
mal ten.  While  the  differences  are  perhaps  not  large  enough 
to  eliminate  danger  from  chance  variation,  the  fact  that  all 
variations  at  both  ends  of  the  table  are  in  the  same  direction 
confirms  the  belief  that  actual  correlation  and  not  mere  chance 
accounts  for  the  phenomenon. 

The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  for  measuring  correlation 
gives  a  coefficient  of  .153  with  a  probable  error  of  approximately 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       33 

.043.  Correlation  seems  to  exist,  but  it  is  nmeli  less  marked 
than  in  the  statistics  as  to  crime. 

Of  individual  counties,  one  is  surprised  at  the  high  rate  of 
AVinneshiek,  Palo  Alto  and  Wayne,  and  the  very  low  rank  of 
Clinton,  Dubuque,  and  Des  Moines  counties.  Wayne  County 
contains  some  coal  mines  and  borders  upon  the  coal  mining 
section  of  Appanoose  County.  The  urban  per  cent  given  for 
Wayne  is  lower  than  it  should  be  owing  to  the  fact  that  several 
rural  villages  within  its  borders  are  unincorporated.  These 
might  offer  some  explanation,  though  liardly  sufficient.  Racial 
characteristics  of  the  population  of  Clinton,  Dubuque,  and  Des 
Moines  counties  might  enter  into  the  question  of  rate  there. 
Clinton  and  Dubuque  counties  have  contained  saloons  through- 
out the  period,  but  the  racial  charactertistics  of  the  population 
may  have  prevented  that  condition  from  producing  a  high  rate 
of  inebriety. 

Table  VII  summarizes  the  facts  as  to  the  commitments  from 
rural  communities  and  urban  communities  of  various  sizes. 

TABLE  VII^5 

Eural  and  Urban  Commitments  to  Hospitals  for  Inebriates,  1909-1914 

Eural  or  urban  No.  per  1,000 

division  population 

Country  .268 

Villages  and  towns  .852 

Towns  2,000-4,000  1.977 

Towns  4,000-8,000  1.858 

Cities  8,000-25,000  2.330 

Cities  25,000  and  over  2.100 

The  comparatively  small  number  of  commitments  from  the 
open  country  is  very  noticeable.  More  than  three  times  as 
high  a  rate  is  shown  for  villages  and  towns  under  2000,  tiiough 
this  rate  is  less  than  half  that  for  any  other  urban  division.  The 
table  shows  some  irregularities  which,  however,  may  not  be  of 
much  significance.  The  slightly  lower  rate  for  cities  above  25,- 
000  than  for  those  of  8000  to  25,000  population  is  surprising. 

Tli(!  absence  of  close  correlation  between  the  size  of  the  com- 


34 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


munity  and  the  rate  of  commitment  to  the  hospital  for  inebriates 
is  further  shown  by  the  following  table  giving  the  rank  of  cities 
in  rate  of  inebriate  commitments. 

TABLE  Villus 


Commitments  to  State  Hospitals  for  Inebriates   from   Cities  of   Towa, 
1904,  1905,  1909-1914 


Rank  of 

County  in      Co. 

.  in  No 

City 

No.  per  1,000 

Rank  in 

which           commit- 

population 

population 

located            ments 

1. 

Perry 

6.26 

32 

Dallas 

41 

2. 

Ames 

5.68 

37 

Story 

18 

3. 

Le  Mars 

5.05 

38 

Plymouth. 

29 

4. 

Des  Moines 

4.92 

1 

Polk 

1 

5. 

Cedar  Eapids 

4.36 

5 

Linn 

4 

6. 

Ottumwa 

4.29 

10 

Wapello 

2 

7. 

Webster    City 

4.03 

24 

Hamilton 

6 

8. 

Fort  Dodge 

.      3.99 

12 

Webster 

5 

9. 

Oelwein 

3.48 

22 

Fayette 

12 

10. 

Centerville 

3.46 

20 

Appanoose 

32 

11. 

Boone 

2.90 

16 

Boone 

24 

12. 

Keokuk 

2.64 

13 

Lee 

8 

13. 

Marshalltown 

2.54 

14 

Marshall 

22 

14. 

Waterloo 

2.43 

7 

Black  Hawk 

15 

15. 

Fairfield 

2.41 

28 

Jefferson 

19 

16. 

Ft.  Madison 

2.36 

19 

Lee 

8 

17. 

Iowa  City 

2.28 

17 

Johnson 

14 

18. 

Grinnell 

2.18 

25 

Poweshiek 

45 

19. 

Newton 

2.17 

33 

Jasper 

56 

20. 

Council  Bluflfs 

2.14 

6 

Pottawattamie  25 

21. 

Sioux  City 

2.11 

2 

Woodbury 

13 

22. 

Red  Oak 

2.07 

31 

Montgomery 

60 

23. 

Oskaloosa 

2.03 

18 

Mahaska 

16 

24. 

Creston 

2.02 

21 

Union 

36 

25. 

Albia 

2.02 

29 

Monroe 

58 

26. 

Cedar  Falls 

*2.00 

26 

Black   Hawk 

15 

27. 

Shenandoah 

1.81 

27 

Page 

66 

28. 

Mason  City 

1.42 

15 

Cerro   Gordo 

42 

29. 

Marion 

1.36 

35 

Linn 

4 

30. 

Davenport 
State  of  Iowa 

1.35 
1.26 

3 

Scott 

35 

31. 

Washington 

1.14 

36 

Washington 

79 

32. 

Clarinda 

1.04 

40 

Page 

66 

33. 

Glenwood 

.98 

39 

Mills 

68 

34. 

Muscatine 

.93 

11 

Muscatine 

69 

35. 

Clinton 

.86 

8 

Clinton 

75 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      35 


36. 

Cherokee 

.82 

30 

Cherokee 

44 

37. 

Charles  City 

.68 

23 

Floyd 

89 

38. 

Dubuque 

.64 

4 

Dubuque 

77 

39. 

Chariton 

.52 

41 

Lucas 

28 

40. 

Atlantic 

.44 

34 

Cass 

83 

41. 

Burlington 

.41 

9 

Des  Moines 

92 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  three  cities  with  the  highest  rate 
are  all  under  5000.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  statistics 
for  Ames  cover  only  the  period  since  the  1910  census,  not  a 
sufficient  period  to  eliminate  chance  variation.  Of  the  three 
cities  with  the  lowest  rates,  Burlington  and  Dubuque  are  both 
among  the  largest  cities  of  the  State.  The  large  per  cent  of 
people  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage  in  these  cities  may  be  an 
element  in  the  situation.  Thirty  cities  have  a  rate  above  the 
State  average,  about  the  same  as  for  penal  commitments. 
Spearman's  formula  gives  a  coefficient  of  correlation  of  .168 
with  a  probable  error  of  .067,  hardly  to  be  expected  from  a 
superficial  view  of  the  table. 

Of  the  thirty-seven  counties  in  which  these  cities  are  located, 
twenty-one  are  included  in  the  upper  thirty-seven  counties  in 
rate  of  commitments  to  the  hospital  for  inebriates.  Of  the  seven- 
teen cities  not  in  these  counties,  ten  have  a  population  of  less 
than  5000,  and  two  between  5000  and  6000,  but  the  remaining 
five  range  from  11,000  to  38,000.  Racial  peculiarities  in  the 
use  of  liquor  and  in  lack  of  susceptibility  to  the  more  serious 
evils  resulting  from  it  may  play  a  part.  Some  of  the  cities  have 
had  no  saloons  for  many  years;  some  had  them  throughout  the 
period  covered  by  the  study. 


IV 
JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 

SOURCES  OF  DATA 

Of  very  great  importance  is  the  question  of  the  tendency  to- 
ward crime  among  the  children  and  young  people,  and  of  the 
conditions  liable  to  create  such  a  condition.  The  biennial  re- 
ports of  the  State  Board  of  Control  give  considerable  statistical 
material  of  value  in  an  investigation  of  this  kind.  Most  reliable 
are  the  statistics  given  for  the  two  state  industrial  schools,  in  all 
respects  parallel  to  those  already  described  for  penal  institu- 
tions. Less  reliable  but  still  accurate  enough  to  be  of  value  are 
figures  given  in  the  Board  of  Control  reports  as  to  the 
cases  before  juvenile  courts.  For  the  calendar  years,  1906-1913, 
figures  as  to  total  number  of  cases  are  available.  Only  for  the 
last  four  years  of  this  period,  however,  are  there  anything  like 
complete  statistics,  classifying  these  cases  under  the  proper 
heads  of  juvenile  delinquency,  neglect,  and  dependence.  Some 
other  tables  as  to  State  care  of  children  are  given  in  the  Board 
of  Control  reports,  but  these  are  either  incomplete  or  mere 
duplications. 

The  statistics  as  to  commitments  to  the  state  industrial 
schools,  because  they  are  more  complete  and  reliable,  will  be 
first  examined.  These  are  summarized  for  the  counties  in 
Table  IX. 

TABLE  1X^7 

Comparative  Table,  Commitments  to  State  Industrial  Schools  from  Iowa 
Counties,  1898-1914 

Rank  of  county 
No.  per  1,000  in  per  cent  of 

County  rank  population  urban  population 

1 
9 

10 
8 

41 

(36) 


1. 

Polk 

4.54 

2. 

Wapello 

2.94 

3. 

Muscatine 

2.88 

4. 

Clinton 

2.69 

5. 

Mahaska 

2.61 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       37 


6. 

Linn 

2.47 

7. 

Marshall 

2.38 

8. 

Lee 

2.34 

9. 

Woodbury 

2.20 

10. 

Pottawattamie 

1.99 

11. 

Harrison 

1.90 

12. 

Wayne 

1.85 

13. 

Dickinson 

1.84 

14. 

Montgomery 

L81 

15. 

Clarke 

1.77 

16. 

Monroe 

1.77 

17. 

Lucas 

1.76 

18. 

Union 

1.62 

19. 

Scott 

1.62 

20. 

Decatur 

1.59 

21. 

Page 

1.54 

22. 

Henry 

1.50 

23. 

Boone 

1.48 

24. 

Black  Hawk 

1.45 

25. 

Benton 

1.38 

State  of  Iowa 

1.34 

26. 

Webster 

1.33 

27. 

Cerro  Gordo 

1.32 

28. 

Jasper 

1.29 

29. 

Fremont 

1.28 

30. 

Dallas 

1.27 

31. 

Einggold 

1.24 

32. 

Des  Moines 

1.22 

33. 

Mills 

1.20 

34. 

Audubon 

1.18 

35. 

Cass 

1.16 

36. 

Dubuque 

1.11 

37. 

Hardin 

1.10 

38. 

Adams 

1.09 

39. 

Chickasaw 

1.04 

40. 

Buchanan 

1.01 

41. 

Wright 

1.00 

42. 

Jones 

1.00 

43. 

Hamilton 

.94 

44. 

Howard 

.93 

45. 

Johnson 

.93 

46. 

Winneshiek 

.92 

47. 

Poweshiek 

.92 

48. 

Franklin 

.88 

49. 

Appanoose 

.87 

50. 

Monona 

.84 

51. 

Kossuth 

.82 

52. 

Floyd 

.82 

53. 

Washington 

.80 

7 
16 
11 

2 
12 

48 
38 
62 
22 
75 

98 
49 
15 
3 
55 

21 
46 
20 
5 
37 

Average 

14 
13 
53 
89 
25 

80 
6 
27 
95 
28 

4 
29 
96 
73 
67 

24 
40 
35 
68 
23 

91 
34 
93 
19 
78 

81 
18 
50 


38  UNIVEKSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


54. 

Taylor 

.80 

55. 

Clayton 

.78 

56. 

Warren 

.77 

57. 

Keokuk 

.76 

58. 

Jefferson 

.75 

59. 

Fayette 

.74 

60. 

Cedar 

.73 

61. 

Delaware 

.73 

62. 

Iowa 

.71 

63. 

Louisa 

.70 

64. 

Story 

.62 

65. 

Jackson 

.61 

66. 

Allamakee 

.58 

67. 

Humboldt 

.57 

68. 

Clay 

.55 

69. 

Pocahontas 

.54 

70. 

Davis 

.53 

71. 

Mitchell 

.52 

72. 

Bremer 

.50 

73. 

Winnebago 

.50 

74. 

Crawford 

.50 

75. 

Adair 

.49 

76. 

Marion 

.48 

77. 

Guthrie 

.46 

78. 

Tama 

.45 

79. 

Madison 

.45 

80. 

Carroll 

.45 

81. 

Osceola 

.45 

82. 

Buena  Vista 

.44 

83. 

Emmet 

.41 

84. 

Worth 

.40 

85. 

Sioux 

.39 

86. 

Greene 

.37 

87. 

Lyon 

.34 

88. 

Cherokee 

.30 

89. 

Grundy 

.29 

90. 

Calhoun 

.29 

91. 

0  'Brien 

.29 

92. 

Van  Buren 

.27 

93. 

Ida 

.27 

94. 

Plymouth 

.26 

95. 

Butler 

.23 

96. 

Shelby 

.18 

97. 

Hancock 

.16 

98. 

Sac 

.12 

99. 

Palo  Alto 

.07 

59 

70 

31 
45 
63 

43 

74 

77 
94 
57 
17 
47 

87 
42 
79 
90 
99 

39 
44 
51 
65 
88 

56 
69 
52 
83 
33 

82 
66 
32 
97 
54 

64 
71 
30 
86 
36 

26 
72 
76 
61 
84 

92 
85 
60 

58 


Attention  is  called  to  the  small  number  of  counties  having 
an  average  rate  higher  than  that  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  only 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      39 

twenty-five  as  compared  with  seventy-four  having  a  lower  rate. 
This  indicates  a  large  degree  of  concentration  of  the  evil  in 
certain  sections.  The  range  above  the  State  average  is  much 
higher  than  that  below,  2.20  to  1.27,  but  this  contrast  is  much 
less  striking  if  the  one  extreme  county,  Polk,  is  omitted;  it  is 
then  but  1.60  to  1.27.  The  counties  with  the  high  rate  must 
apparently  be  those  of  the  larger  population,  and  so  of  high 
urban  per  cent,  in  order  to  account  for  the  high  State  average. 
That  they  do  contain  in  their  number  an  undue  proportion  of 
the  counties  of  high  urban  rate,  further  study  of  the  table 
shows.  In  the  upper  twenty-five,  by  normal  proportion  we 
would  expect  six  or  seven  from  the  upper  twenty-five  and 
twelve  or  thirteen  from  the  upper  half  of  the  counties  in  per 
cent  of  urban  population.  Instead,  we  find  fifteen  from  the 
upper  twenty-five  and  twenty-one  from  the  upper  half. 

The  counties  of  low  rate  of  industrial  commitment  likewise 
appear  to  be  counties  of  lower  per  cent  of  urban  population. 
In  the  lower  twenty,  instead  of  the  normal  four,  we  find  seven 
of  the  twenty  counties  lowest  in  rank  in  urban  per  cent.  In  the 
same  twenty,  instead  of  the  normal  ten,  we  find  sixteen  of  the 
lower  half  of  the  counties  ranked  according  to  urban  per  cent. 

This  parallelism  of  commitment  rate  and  urban  per  cent  is 
especially  noticeable  in  the  first  ten  counties.  Of  the  ten  coun- 
ties, nine  come  in  the  first  sixteen  in  urban  per  cent,  the  one 
exception  (Mahaska)  being  a  county  in  the  coal  mining  district. 
For  counties  containing  large  cities,  Des  Moines  and  Dubuque 
rank  quite  low,  thirty-second  and  thirty-sixth  respectively.^* 

The  comparative  number  of  commitments  from  the  country, 
small  towns,  and  cities  of  various  sizes  is  shown  clearly  in  the 
following  table : 

TABLE  X'9 

Rural  and  Urban  CommitnientH  to  State  Tnilustrial  Schools,  1909-1914 

Rural  or  urban  No.  per  1,000 

division  population 

Country  .0072 

Villages  and  towns  .060 

Towns  2000-4000  .941 


40  UNIVERSITY  OP  IOWA  STUDIES 

Towns  4000-8000  1.002 

Cities   8000-25000  1,360 

Cities  25000  and  over  1.420 

The  most  prominent  feature  of  this  table  is  tlie  almost  neg- 
ligible number  of  commitments  from  the  open  country.  It  has 

been  suggested  that  this  is  due  to  the  close  acquaintance  ex- 
isting among  all  members  of  the  rural  community,  and  a  re- 
sulting unwillingness  to  offend  any  family  by  complaining 
about  their  children.  This  fact  of  close  acquaintance,  however, 
is  almost  equally  characteristic  of  the  town  under  two  thousand 
in  population,  but  the  rate  is  about  eighty  times  that  for  the 
open  country.  The  fact  would  seem  to  be  that  the  open  country 
gives  children  and  young  people  full  opportunity  for  giving 
vent  to  their  natural  energy  and  exuberance  of  spirits,  without 
coming  into  serious  conflict  with  social  interests,  as  is  liable 
to  happen  when  population  is  more  crowded,  even  if  no  more 
so  than  in  a  village. 

Above  the  open  country  there  is  a  steady  rise  in  the  rate 
corresponding  to  the  increase  in  size  of  the  town  or  city.  The 
correlation  between  the  size  of  the  community  and  the  rate  of 
commitments  is  much  closer  for  the  industrial  schools  than  for 
either  penal  commitments  or  inebriate  commitments,  in  the 
tables  for  each  of  which  irregularities  existed. 

The  data  obtained  for  the  cities  above  four  thousand  is  sum- 
marized in  Table  XI. 

TABLE  XI2» 

Comparative  Table,  Commitments  to  State  Industrial  Schools  from 
Cities  of  Iowa,  1906,  1909-1914 

Rank  of 
County  in      Co.  in  no. 
No.  per  1,000  Rank  in  which  commit- 

City  population  population      located  ments 

1.  Des  Moines  2.420  1  Polk  1 

2.  Muscatine  2.411  11  Muscatine  3 

3.  Cedar  Rapids  2.286  5  Linn  6 

4.  Oskaloosa  2.113  18  Mahaska  5 

5.  Marshalltown  1.944  14  Marshall  7 


_, 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      41 


6. 

Ottiimwa 

1.908 

10 

Wapello 

2 

7. 

Eed  Oak 

1.863 

31 

Montgomery 

14 

8. 

Chariton 

1.731 

41 

Lucas 

17 

9. 

Perry 

1.728 

32 

Dallas 

30 

10. 

Davenport 

1.650 

3 

Scott 

19 

11. 

Shenandoah 

1.608 

27 

Page 

21 

12. 

Mason    City- 

1.603 

15 

Cerro  Gordo 

27 

13. 

Washington 

1.598 

36 

Washington 

53 

14. 

Boone 

1.548 

16 

Boone 

23 

15. 

Newton 

1.516 

33 

Jasper 

28 

16. 

Sioux  City 

1.505 

2 

Woodbury 

9 

17. 

Keokuk 

1.499 

13 

Lee 

8 

18. 

Fort  Dodge 

1.287 

12 

Webster 

26 

19. 

Council  Bluffs 

1.271 

6 

Pottawattamie  10 

20. 

Clarinda 

1,218 

40 

Page 

21 

21. 

Grinnell 

1.191 

25 

Poweshiek 

47 

22. 

Creston 

1.155 

21 

Union 

18 

23. 

Iowa  City 

1.090 

17 

Johnson 

45 

24. 

Cherokee 

1.074 

30 

Cherokee 

88 

25. 

Albia 

1.057 

29 

Monroe 

16 

26. 

Centerville 

1.009 

20 

Appanoose 

49 

27. 

Fairfield 

1.006 

28 

Jefferson 

58 

28. 

Webster  City 

.960 

24 

Hamilton 

43 

29. 

Waterloo 

.936 

7 

Black  Hawk 

24 

30. 

Marion 

.909 

35 

Linn 

6 

31. 

Fort  Madison 

.899 

19 

Lee 

8 

32. 

Clinton 

.860 

8 

Clinton 

4 

33. 

Charles  City 

.849 

23 

Floyd 

52 

34. 

Oelwein 

.829 

22 

Fayette 

59 

35. 

Dubuque 

.747 

4 

Dubuque 

36 

36. 

Le  Mars 
State  of  Iowa 

.722 
.604 

38 

Plymouth 

94 

37. 

Burlington 

.452 

9 

Des  Moines 

32 

38. 

Atlantic 

.439 

34 

Cass 

35 

39. 

Glenwood 

.432 

39 

Mills 

33 

40. 

Ames 

.415 

37 

Story 

64 

41. 

Cedar    Falls 

.199 

26 

Black  Hawk 

24 

There  is  no  doubt  that  cities  have  an  undue  proportion  of 
industrial  school  commitments,  thirty-six  out  of  the  forty-one 
ranking  above  the  State  average  as  contrasted  with  but  twenty- 
five  out  of  the  ninety-nine  counties.  The  thirty-seven  counties 
in  which  the  forty-one  cities  are  located  include  within  their 
number  nineteen  out  of  the  twenty- Hve  counties  with  a  rate 
above  the  State  average.  Of  these  thiity-seven  counties,  twenty- 
six  come  within  the  upper  thirty-seven  in  number  of  commit- 


42  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

ments.  Of  the  eleven  cities  located  in  counties  not  coining 
within  this  upper  thirty-seven,  only  four  are  above  5000  in 
population,  only  two  of  these  above  6000,  and  only  one  of  these, 
Iowa  City,  above  7000.  The  small  part  these  cities  form  of  the 
population  of  their  respective  counties  accounts  for  the  low 
rate  of  commitments. 

In  no  place  is  the  influence  of  the  size  of  the  principal  city 
upon  a  county's  rate  more  clearly  shown  than  in  a  comparison 
of  Polk  and  Muscatine  counties  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  their 
respective  cities,  Des  Moines  and  Muscatine,  on  the  other.  Polk 
County  has  a  rate  considerably  more  than  fifty  per  cent  higher 
than  that  of  Muscatine  County ;  the  difference  in  rate  between 
the  two  cities  is  almost  negligible.  To  be  sure  the  city  rates 
are  not  based  on  the  same  number  of  years  as  the  county  rate, 
but  there  is  no  difference  in  the  rates  for  the  different  years 
covered  which  would  disturb  the  validity  of  the  comparison. 

Notable  features  of  Table  XI  are  the  high  rate  for  cities  as 
small  as  Muscatine,  Oskaloosa  and  Marshalltown.  Muscatine 
had,  according  to  the  1910  census,  the  largest  absolute  number 
of  children  under  sixteen  employed  in  industrial  enterprises 
of  any  city  in  the  State.  Oskaloosa  has  coal  mines  in  close 
proximity.  The  reaction  of  industrial  conditions  upon  juvenile 
delinquency  is  distinctly  illustrated. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  Marshalltown 
situation.  The  high  rate  of  Chariton  may  possibly  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  period  covered  (three  years)  was  insufficient 
for  the  elimination  of  variations  due  purely  to  chance.  For  so 
large  a  city,  Sioux  City  comes  well  down  the  list,  which  is 
probably  due  largely  to  efficient  probation  work  for  juvenile 
delinquents.  Notable  indeed  is  the  low  rate  of  Waterloo,  Du- 
buque, and  especially  Burlington,  the  rate  of  the  last  named 
city  being  below  the  State  average.  Dubuque  has  a  paid  pro- 
bation officer  at  present,  but  has  not  had  one  long  enough  to 
account  foi"  the  low  rate  for  the  years  covered.  Both  Waterloo 
and  Burlington  have  for  some  time  had  efficient  social  ser\'ice 
organizations  at  work.  Spearman's  formula  gives  .207  as  the 
coefficient  of  correlation  between  the  size  of  the  citv  and  the 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      43 

commitment  rate,  the  probable  error  being  ,067.  This  is  consid- 
erably higher  than  in  the  case  of  penal  or  inebriate  hospital 
commitments. 

JUVENILE  COURT  CASES 
The  statistics  as  to  total  number  of  cases  before  the  juvenile 
courts  of  the  different  counties  for  the  whole  period  without 
reference   to    the    character   of   the   cases   are    summarized   in 
Table  XII. 

TABLE  XII" 


Comparative  Table,  Total  Gases  before  Juvenile  Courts  in  Counties 
of  Iowa,  1906-1913 


Rank  of  county 

No.  per  1,000 

in  per  cent  of 

County 

population 

urban  population 

1. 

Polk 

18.04 

1 

2. 

Linn 

13.32 

7 

3. 

Scott 

7.30 

3 

4. 

Woodbury 

7.20 

2 

5. 

Black  Hawk 

6.19 

5 

6. 

Muscatine 

4,91 

10 

7. 

Pottawattamie 

4.23 

12 

8. 

Dubuque 

3.69 

4 

9. 

Mahaska 

3,28 

41 

10. 

Kinggold 

2,94 

80 

State  of  Iowa 

2.74 

Average 

11. 

Harrison 

2.72 

48 

12. 

Marshall 

2.54 

16 

13. 

Buchanan 

2.28 

67 

14. 

Clinton 

2.27 

8 

15. 

Cerro  Gordo 

2.24 

13 

16. 

Clarke 

2.24 

75 

17. 

Lee 

2.07 

11 

18. 

Appanoose 

2.06 

19 

19. 

Poweshiek 

1.99 

34 

20. 

Adams 

1.91 

96 

21. 

Webster 

1.88 

14 

22. 

Emmet 

1.83 

32 

23. 

Buena  Vista 

1.81 

66 

24. 

Floyd 

1.81 

18 

25. 

Humboldt 

1.81 

42 

26. 

Jones 

1.78 

40 

27. 

Story 

1.71 

17 

44  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


28. 

Cedar 

1.69 

29. 

Lucas 

1.62 

30. 

Adair 

1.60 

31. 

Pocahontas 

1.49 

32. 

Dallas 

1.48 

33. 

Boone 

1.45 

34. 

Montgomery 

1.45 

35. 

Jasper 

1.41 

36. 

Page 

1.37 

37. 

Jackson 

1.36 

88. 

Franklin 

1.35 

39. 

Johnson 

1.31 

40. 

Mitchell 

1.27 

41. 

Marion 

1.26 

42. 

Jefferson 

1.25 

43. 

Benton 

1.25 

44. 

Louisa 

1.24 

45. 

Washington 

1.20 

46. 

Monona 

1.20 

47. 

Bremer 

1.20 

48. 

Kossuth 

1.18 

49. 

Clay 

1.18 

50. 

Delaware 

1.06 

51. 

Sioux 

1.06 

52. 

Mills 

1.01 

53. 

Wayne 

.99 

54. 

Iowa 

.98 

55. 

Clayton 

.98 

56. 

Carroll 

.89 

57. 

Winneshiek 

.87 

58. 

Monroe 

.87 

59. 

Grundy 

.81 

60. 

Van  Buren 

.80 

61. 

Union 

.78 

62. 

Warren 

.77 

63. 

Wapello 

.77 

64. 

Chickasaw 

.72 

65. 

Des  Moines 

.69 

66. 

Hamilton 

.68 

67. 

Decatur 

.67 

68. 

Tama 

.66 

69. 

Green 

.62 

70. 

Keokuk 

.61 

71. 

Winnebago 

.59 

72. 

Palo  Alto 

.58 

73. 

Cass 

.58 

74. 

Wright 

.56 

75. 

Hancock 

.55 

76. 

Henry 

.54 

77. 

Allamakee 

.52 

74 
49 

88 

90 
25 
20 
22 
53 

21 

47 
93 
23 
39 

56 
63 
37 
57 
50 

78 
44 
81 
79 
77 

54 
27 
38 
94 
70 

33 
91 

98 
86 

72 

15 
31 

9 
73 

6 

35 
55 

52 
64 

45 

51 
58 
28 
24 
85 

46 
87 


78 
79. 

Fayette 
Davis 

80. 

Madison 

81. 

Fremont 

82. 

Osceola 

83. 

Audubon 

84. 

Howard 

85. 

Cherokee 

86. 

Crawford 

87. 

Worth 

88. 
89. 

Lyon 
Dickinson 

90. 

Guthrie 

91. 

Hardin 

92. 
93. 
94. 

Taylor 
Shelby 
Butler 

95. 

Calhoun 

96. 

0  'Brien 

97. 

Ida 

98. 
99. 

Plymouth 
Sac 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       45 

.50  43 

.45  99 

.45  83 

.45  89 

.45  82 

.39  95 

.39  68 

.36  30 

.35  65 

.30  97 

.27  71 

.25  62 

.23  69 

.19  29 

.18  59 

.18  92 

.18  84 

.12  36 

.12  26 

.00  76 

.00  61 

.00  60 

Attention  is  at  once  drawn  to  the  fact  that  so  few  counties 
(ten)  have  a  rate  higher  than  that  for  the  State  as  a  whole. 
This  phase  of  juvenile  delinquency  would  seem  to  be  much  more 
concentrated  in  certain  centers  than  any  which  we  have  studied. 
The  range  above  the  State  average  is  many  times  that  below, 
15.30  as  contrasted  with  2.74,  but  the  extreme  character  of  the 
contrast  largely  disappears  with  the  elimination  of  the  two 
highest  counties,  Polk  and  Linn,  as  it  is  then  but  4.56  to  2.74. 
These  two  counties  have  a  disproportionately  high  rate.  Con- 
centration in  counties  of  large  population  and  high  urban  rate 
is  very  marked.  Of  the  ten  counties  with  a  rate  above  the  State 
average,  seven  come  in  the  upper  ten  in  per  cent  of  urban  pop- 
ulation. The  normal  number  would  be  a  fraction  over  one. 
Only  one  instead  of  five,  and  that  the  lowest  one  of  the  ten 
comes  in  the  lower  half  of  counties  in  urban  per  cent.  Within 
the  first  eight  counties  are  the  seven  containing  the  seven 
largest  cities  in  the  state. 

Looking  at  the  other  end  of  the  table,  we  find  a  similar  though 
not  so  extreme  a  situation.  In  the  twenty  counties  lowest  in 
rate  of  cases  before  the  juvenile  court,  instead  of  the  normal 
four,  there  are  seven  of  the  twenty  lowest  in  urban  per  cent. 


46  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

In  the  same  twenty  counties,  instead  of  the  normal  ten,  there 
are  sixteen  of  the  lower  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent. 
From  a  study  of  both  ends  of  the  table  there  appears  to  be  a 
positive  correlation  between  the  rank  in  the  rate  for  cases  be- 
fore the  juvenile  court  and  in  the  rank  in  urban  per  cent.  This 
seems  true  at  both  extremes  of  the  table  though  much  the  more 
marked  at  the  upper  end. 

The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  indicates  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  correlation,  the  coeffiicient  obtained  being  .301  with  a 
probable  error  of  .043.  A  weakness  of  this  formula  lies  in  its 
failure  to  take  into  account  variations  in  the  degree  of  differ- 
ence between  those  next  in  rank,  variations  which  are  quite  large 
in  this  table.  The  correlation  in  this  case  of  actual  rates  is  no 
doubt  much  greater  than  that  for  ranks. 

Wapello  and  Des  Moines  counties  rank  abnormally  low,  64 
and  66  respectively.  For  Des  Moines  County  this  has  been  seen 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  comparatively  low  rate  of  commitment 
to  the  industrial  schools,  but  Wapello  has  a  very  high  rate. 
This  rather  paradoxical  situation  raises  a  question  as  to  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  figures  for  the  number  of  eases  in  Wapello  County. 
JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 

The  statistics  as  to  the  cases  of  juvenile  delinquency  brought 
before  the  juvenile  courts  of  the  various  counties  are  summar- 
ized in  Table  XIII. 

TABLE  XIII22 

Comparative  Table,  Cases  of  Juvenile  Delinquency  before  Juvenile 
Courts  in  Iowa  Counties,  1910-1913 


Rank  of  county 

No. 

per  1,000 

in  per 

cent  of 

County 

population 

urban 

populatiot 

1. 

Polk 

6.83 

1 

2. 

Linn 

3.75 

7 

3. 

Muscatine 

2.85 

10 

4. 

Woodbury 

2.82 

2 

5. 

Black  Hawk 

2.21 

5 

6. 

Ringgold 

1.78 

80 

7. 

Scott 

1.45 

3 

8. 

Harrison 

1.34 

48 

9. 

Appanoose 

1.32 

If 

10. 

Pottawattamie 

1.15 

12 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      47 


11. 

Dubuque 

Lll 

12. 

Humboldt 

1.07 

13. 

Dallas 

1.06 

State  of  lown 

1.06 

14. 

Kossuth 

.96 

15. 

Mahaska 

.94 

16. 

Buena  Vista 

.88 

17. 

Montgomery 

.84 

18. 

Clarke 

.84 

19. 

Lee 

.82 

20. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.80 

21. 

Marshall 

.79 

22. 

Cedar 

.79 

23. 

Benton 

.78 

24. 

Clinton 

.77 

25. 

Adams 

.73 

26. 

Clay 

.63 

27. 

Pocahontas 

.61 

28. 

Webster 

.61 

29. 

Iowa 

.60 

30. 

Wayne 

.58 

31. 

Delaware 

.56 

32. 

Buchanan 

.56 

33. 

Jasper 

.55 

34. 

Franklin 

.54 

35. 

Lucas 

.51 

36. 

Emmet 

.51 

37. 

Bremer 

.50 

38. 

Story 

.50 

39. 

Boone 

.47 

40. 

Jackson 

.47 

41. 

Des  Moines 

.47 

42. 

Washington 

.45 

43. 

Davis 

.45 

44. 

Marion 

.43 

45. 

Henry 

.43 

46. 

Monona 

.42 

47. 

Page 

.42 

48. 

Floyd 

.41 

49. 

Van  Buren 

.40 

50. 

Louisa 

.39 

51. 

Howard 

.39 

52. 

Warren 

.38 

53. 

Poweshiek 

.36 

54. 

Adair 

.35 

55. 

Chickasaw 

.33 

56. 

Wapello 

.32 

57. 

Mills 

.32 

58. 

Tama 

.32 

4 
42 
25 

Average 

81 
41 
66 

22 
75 

11 
13 
16 

74 
37 

8 
96 
79 
90 
14 

94 
38 
77 
67 
53 

93 
49 
32 
44 
17 

20 
47 
6 
50 
99 

56 

46 
78 
21 

18 

72 
57 
68 
31 
34 

88 
73 
9 
27 
52 


48  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

95 
40 
98 
35 
63 

97 
54 
28 
89 
55 

45 
70 
71 
59 
51 

23 
39 
83 
30 
26 

87 
69 
82 
24 
91 

85 
86 
64 
15 
36 

84 
65 
33 
29 
43 

62 
76 

58 
61 
60 

92 

Though  not  so  noticeable  as  in  Table  XII,  still  the  smaller  num- 
ber of  counties  with  a  rate  above  the  State  average  (thirteen)  is 
very  suggestive;  the  problem  of  the  juvenile  delinquent  seems 
peculiarly  acute  in  certain  centers.  The  range  above  is  again 
many  times  that  below,  5.77  as  contrasted  with  1.06,  but  the 
contrast  again  largely  disappears  with  the  elimination  of  Polk 


59. 

Audubon 

.32 

60. 

Jones 

.31 

61. 

Monroe 

.31 

62. 

Hamilton 

.31 

63. 

Jefferson 

.31 

64. 

Worth 

.30 

65. 

Sioux 

.28 

66. 

Cass 

.26 

67. 

Fremont 

.26 

68. 

Decatur 

.24 

69. 

Keokuk 

.24 

70. 

Clayton 

.23 

71. 

Lyon 

.21 

72. 

Taylor 

.18 

73. 

Winnebago 

.17 

74. 

Johnson 

.15 

75. 

Mitchell 

.15 

76. 

Madison 

.13 

77. 

Cherokee 

.12 

78. 

0  'Brien 

.12 

79. 

Allamakee 

.12 

80. 

Guthrie 

.12 

81. 

Osceola 

.11 

82. 

Wright 

.11 

83. 

Winneshiek 

.09 

84. 

Hancock 

.08 

85. 

Grundy 

.07 

86. 

Green 

.06 

87. 

Union 

.06 

88. 

Calhoun 

.06 

89. 

Butler 

.06 

90. 

Crawford 

.05 

9L 

Carroll 

.05 

92. 

Hardin 

.05 

93. 

Fayette 

.04 

94. 

Dickinson 

.00 

95. 

Ida 

.00 

96. 

Palo  Alto 

.00 

97. 

Plymouth 

.00 

98. 

Sac 

.00 

99. 

Shelby 

.00 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       49 

and  Linn  counties,  1.79  to  1.06.  This  result  confirms  the  evi- 
dence of  the  preceding  table  as  to  the  serious  nature  of  the 
problem  in  these  counties. 

Of  the  thirteen  counties  with  a  rate  above  the  State  average, 
instead  of  the  normal  proportion  of  less  than  two,  eight  are 
included  in  the  thirteen  counties  of  highest  rank  in  urban  per 
cent,  and  twelve  in  the  upper  half.  The  correlation  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  table  is  fairly  close.  In  the  lower  portion  of  the 
table  the  correlation  is  not  so  close,  though  the  tendency  is  in  the 
same  direction.  Of  the  twenty  counties  lowest  in  the  rate  of 
juvenile  delinquency,  instead  of  the  normal  four,  there  are  in- 
cluded six  of  the  twenty  lowest  in  urban  per  cent,  and  instead 
of  the  normal  ten,  there  are  included  fourteen  from  the  lower 
half  in  urban  per  cent.^^ 

Of  individual  counties,  Ringgold  has  a  high  rate,  the  reason 
for  which  is  not  evident.  Harrison  and  Appanoose  are  also 
high.  The  presence  of  a  large  coal  mining  population  in  Ap- 
panoose County  may  explain  the  situation  there.  Des  Moines 
County  and,  to  a  greater  degree,  Wapello  have  unexpectedly 
low  rates  as  noted  in  Table  XII. 

JUVENILE  NEGLECT 
The  available  statistics  as  to  cases  of  neglected  children  are 
summarized  in  Table  XIV. 

TABLE  XIV^* 


Comparative  Table,  Cases  of  Juvenile  Neglect  before  Juvenile  Courts  in 
Iowa  Counties,   1910-1913 

Rank  of  county 
in  per  cent  of 
urban   population 

1 
3 
5 
17 
2 

86 
70 
7 
93 
27 


County 

No.  per  1000 
population 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

Polk 
Scott 

Black  Hawk 
Story 
Woodbury 

2.14 
.83 
.82 
.66 
.59 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Grundy 

Clayton 

Linn 

Franklin 

Mills 

.52 
.47 
.44 
.41 
.38 

50  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


43 
94 
79 
12 

Average 

56 
22 

8  ■ 
10 
38 
28 

11 
25 

40 
75 
80 

41 
72 
44 
66 
30 

6 

9 

34 

47 

48 

21 

13 

98 

4 

Only  thirty-nine  counties  report  any  eases,  and  for  many 
counties,  the  numbers  are  too  small  for  the  drawing  of  valid 
conclusions.  It  may  be  worth  noting,  however,  that  the  thirty- 
nine  counties  include  in  their  number  twenty-two  of  the  thirty- 
nine  counties  of  highest  urban  per  cent,  while  a  normal  propor- 
tion would  be  sixteen.  The  fourteen  counties  with  a  rate  above 
the  State  average  include  six  of  the  first  fourteen  counties  in 
urban  per  cent,  while  the  normal  share  would  be  two.  The 
county  containing  the  one  really  large  city  in  the  State  has  a 
rate  two  and  one-half  times  that  of  the  second  county. 

JUVENILE  DEPENDENCE 
Wliile  perhaps  according  to  strict  logic,  consideration  of  this 
topic  should  be  in  the  chapter  on  dependence,  it  seems  of  more 


11. 

12. 

Fayette 
Iowa 

.36 
.33 

13. 

14. 

Clay 
Pottawattamie 

.31 
.25 

State  of  Iowa 

.23 

15. 

Marion 

.22 

16. 
17. 

Montgomery 
Clinton 

.18 
.18 

18. 

Muscatine 

.17 

19. 

20. 

Wayne 
Cass 

.16 
.16 

21. 

Lee 

.14 

22. 

Dallas 

.13 

23. 

Jones 

.10 

24. 

Clarke 

.09 

25. 

Einggold 

.08 

26. 

Mahaska 

.07 

27. 

Van  Buren 

.07 

28. 

Bremer 

.06 

29. 

Buena  Vista 

.06 

30. 

Cherokee 

.06 

31. 

Des  Moines 

.06 

32. 
33. 

Wapello 
Poweshiek 

.05 
.05 

34. 

Jackson 

.05 

35. 

Harrison 

.04 

36. 
37. 

Page 
Cerro  Gordo 

.04 
.04 

38. 

Monroe 

.04 

39. 

Dubuque 

.03 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       51 

practical  value  to  consider  all  problems  of  juvenile  welfare  to- 
gether.    The  statistics  available  are  summarized  in  Table  XV. 

TABLE  XV 


Comparative  Table,  Cases  of  Juvenile  Dependence   in  Juvenile  Courts 
in  Iowa  Counties,  1910-1913 


Rank  of  county 

No.  per  1000 

in  per  cent  of 

County 

population 

urban  population 

1. 

Linn 

3.24 

7 

2. 

Polk 

2.34 

1 

3. 

Scott 

2.05 

3 

4. 

Woodbury 

1.32 

2 

5. 

Muscatine 

.98 

10 

6. 

Buchanan 

.86 

67 

7. 

Adair 

.76 

88 

8. 

Jones 

.68 

40 

9. 

Dubuque 

.63 

4 

10. 

Union 

.60 

15 

11. 

Webster 

.52 

14 

12. 

Clarke 

.47 

75 

13. 

Lucas 

.44 

49 

14. 

Decatur 

.43 

55 

15. 

Black  Hawk 

.42 

5 

State  of  Iowa 

.43 

Average 

16. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.40 

13 

17. 

Clinton 

.33 

8 

18. 

Chickasaw 

.33 

73 

19. 

Buena  Vista 

.31 

66 

20. 

Hamilton 

.31 

35 

21. 

Pottawattamie 

.29 

12 

22. 

Page 

.25 

21 

23. 

Dallas 

.21 

25 

24. 

Adams 

.18 

96 

25. 

Allamakee 

.17 

87 

26. 

Harrison 

.17 

48 

27. 

Cedar 

.17 

74 

28. 

Wayne 

.16 

38 

29. 

Clayton 

.16 

70 

30. 

Hardin 

.14 

29 

31. 

Jackson 

.14 

47 

32. 

Lee 

.14 

11 

33. 

Marion 

.13 

56 

34. 

Jefferson 

.13 

63 

35. 

Guthrie 

.12 

69 

36. 

Osceola 

.11 

37. 

Wapello 

.11 

38. 

Keokuk 

.09 

39. 

Winneshiek 

.09 

40. 

Boone 

.07 

41. 

Franklin 

.07 

42. 

Van  Buren 

.07 

43. 

Fremont 

.06 

44. 

Mills 

.06 

45. 

Montgomery 

.06 

46. 

Monona 

.06 

47. 

Calhoun 

.06 

48. 

O'Brien 

.06 

49. 

Crawford 

.05 

50. 

Johnson 

.04 

51. 

Benton 

.04 

52. 

Jasper 

.04 

52  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

82 
9 
45 
91 
20 

93 

72 
89 
27 
22 

78 
36 
26 
65 
23 

37 
53 

No  cases  are  reported  from  forty-six  of  the  ninety-nine 
counties.  For  many  others  the  numbers  are  too  small  for  much 
confidence  to  be  put  in  the  evidence  as  to  dependence,  since 
chance  variations  may  play  too  large  a  part.  Some  of  the  feat- 
ures of  the  table,  however,  are  suggestive.  Only  fifteen  of  the 
counties  report  a  rate  higher  than  the  State  average.  This 
seems  to  mean  concentration  of  the  problem  in  counties  of  large 
population  and  high  urban  rate.  The  first  four  counties  in  the 
table  are  the  four  counties  of  largest  population  in  the  State, 
each  of  them  containing  a  large  city.  The  fifth  county,  Mus- 
catine, has  a  city  of  only  medium  size,  but  it  is  one  in,  which, 
as  brought  out  in  all  previous  tables  dealing  with  children  and 
young  people  there  seems  to  be  serious  evils  in  regard  to  child 
welfare.  Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  presence  of  the 
largest  number  of  cliild  industrial  workers  in  any  city  in  the 
State,  as  already  noted.  The  city  also  passed  through  a  serious 
industrial  conflict  in  the  spring  of  1911. 

The  fifteen  counties  ranking  above  the  State  average  contain 
nine  of  the  first  fifteen  counties  in  urban  per  cent,  instead  of 
the  normal  two  or  three.  Of  the  fifteen,  eleven  come  from  the 
upper  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent,  as  contrasted  with 
a  normal  seven  or  eight.  The  first  twenty-one  counties  contain 
every  city  with  a  population  of  over  25,000  in  1910.  The  prob- 
lem seems  centered  in  the  large  cities.  This  is  not  always  true, 
however,  for  Des  Moines  County,  with  its  city  of  Burlington, 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       53 

ninth  in  size  in  the  State,  reports  no  cases  of  juvenile  depend- 
ence, a  situation  similar  to  that  found  in  earlier  tables  dealing 
with  problems  of  child  welfare.  Long  establislied  and  efficient 
social  service  organizations  probably  account  for  this  condition. 
The  evidence  is  conclusive  that  in.  Iowa  juvenile  delinquency 
is  an  urban  rather  than  a  rural  problem.  Like  results  have 
been  found  elsewhere  upon  investigation.  Reports  from  the  two 
industrial  schools  in  Ohio  confirm  this  conclusion.  A  much 
larger  proportion  of  girls  first  go  wrong  in  large  cities  than  in 
either  the  open  country  or  the  village.  Of  the  boys  under  care 
of  the  Ohio  industrial  school  for  boys,  "the  superintendent 
states  that  at  least  65  per  cent  are  received  from  cities;  about 
twenty  per  cen.t  from  the  villages  and  not  over  ten  per  cent 
from  the  open  county."  The  Michigan  Industrial  School  for 
boys  shows  a  similar  record.*^ 


V 

DEPENDENCE 

TREATMENT  IN  IOWA 

Public  poor  relief  as  administered  in  Iowa  comes  under  the 
ordinary  divisions  of  outdoor  and  indoor  relief.  The  officials 
primarily  responsible  for  its  administration  are  the  county  su- 
pervisors, who  are  subject  to  no  State  supervision,  beyond  the 
fact  that  county  homes  including  insane  persons  among  their 
inmates  are  subject  to  inspection  by  the  State  Board  of  Control. 
Indoor  relief  is  in  county  institutions  legally  known  as  county 
homes,  ordinarily  located  upon  county  farms.  One  of  the  chief 
evils  characteristic  of  the  system  is  the  herding  together  in  the 
institution  without  classification  of  defectives  of  various  sorts, 
vagrants  and  semi-criminals,  and  the  worthy  but  unfortunate 
poor.  There  is  seldom  any  skilled  care  of  inmates,  as  the  chief 
qualification  required  of  superintendents  is  ability  to  make  the 
farm  pay.  Lack  of  proper  restriction  upon  admission  and  re- 
lease, and  of  suitable  employment  for  inmates  are  other  serious 
defects. 

In  the  administration  of  outdoor  relief  the  supervisors  are 
assisted  by  the  local  township  trustees  and,  in  municipalities,  by 
the  overseer  of  the  poor,  in  all  but  a  very  few  cases,  persons  of  no 
special  training  for  their  tasks.  In  a  few  cities,  the  administra- 
tion of  public  relief  has  been  entrusted  to  the  city  Charity  Or- 
ganization Society.  An  experiment  of  this  kind,  begun,  in 
Keokuk  in  1899,  was  reported  to  have  worked  well  and  to  be 
still  in  operation  in  1905.  Later  it  seems  to  have  been  discon- 
tinued. Grinnell  and  Waterloo  have  had  such  an  arrangement 
for  several  years,  and  more  recently  Ottumwa,  Oskaloosa,  Ce- 
dar Rapids  and  Fort  Dodge  have  adopted  the  plan.. 

In  addition  to  public  outdoor  relief,  special  provision  is  made 
for  the  relief  of  soldiers  and  their  dependent  relatives.  No 
satisfactory  statistics  are  available  as  to  relief  given  by  volun- 
tary charitable  enterprises. 

(54) 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       55 

Of  the  ninety-nine  counties  in  Iowa,  ninety-seven,  possess 
county  homes,  while  the  remaining  two,  Osceola  and  Harrison, 
provide  for  the  boarding  out  of  dependents.  Three  counties, 
Crawford,  Emmet,  and  Ida,  have  had  poor  farms  in  use  but  a 
comparatively  short  time.^'' 

INDOOR  RELIEF 

Statistics  as  to  the  number  of  inmates  in  the  county  homes 
are  published  in  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Con- 
trol. Comment  has  already  been  made  as  to  the  defects  of  these 
statistics,  although  the  figures  for  the  later  years  seem  some- 
what improved.  No  figures,  however,  are  given  for  Crawford, 
Emmet,  or  Ida  Counties.  Data  in  regard  to  these  counties  was 
secured  by  correspondence  from  the  steward  of  the  county 
home,  or  from  the  county  auditor,  and  does  not  cover  so  long 
a  period  of  years. 

The  statistics  as  to  the  number  of  inmates  in  the  county 
homes,  or  persons  boarded  by  the  county,  are  summarized  in 
Table  XVI.  This  table  differs  from  those  hitherto  considered 
dealing  with  institutions  as  it  is  based  on  the  total  number  of 
inmates  at  a  given  time  rather  than  upon  the  number  of  com- 
mitments during  a  given  period. 

TABLE  XVI^s 

Comparative  Table,  Inmates  in  County  Homes  in  Iowa,  Average  June 
30,  1910,  1912,  1914 


Rank  of  county 

No. 

per  1000 

in  per 

cent  of 

County 

population 

urban 

population 

1. 

Jefferson 

3.47 

63 

2. 

Jackson 

2.59 

47 

3. 

Marshall 

2.59 

16 

4. 

Van   Buren 

2.55 

72 

5. 

Des  Moines 

2.54 

6 

6. 

Wapello 

2.31 

9 

7. 

Linn 

2.21 

7 

8. 

Fayette 

2.17 

43 

9. 

Bremer 

2.13 

44 

10. 

Johnson 

2.12 

23 

11. 

Davis 

2.05 

99 

12. 

Boone 

2.00 

20 

56  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


13. 

Cedar 

1.99 

14. 

Fremont 

1.98 

15. 

Allamakee 

1.96 

16. 

Winneshiek 

1.95 

17. 

Jones 

1.94 

18. 
19. 

Clayton 
Hancock 

1.94 
1.91 

20. 

Washington 

1.86 

21. 

Polk 

L82 

22. 

Tama 

1.81 

23. 

Lee 

1.72 

24. 

Decatur 

1.71 

25. 

Henry 

1.66 

26. 

Lucas 

1.50 

27. 

Clinton 

1.49 

28. 

Muscatine 

1.41 

29. 

Louisa 

1.40 

30. 

Worth 

1.30 

31. 
32. 

Jasper 
Butler 

1.27 
1.27 

33. 

Dallas 

1.26 

34. 

Mahaska 

1.24 

35. 

Marion 

1.22 

36. 

Keokuk 

1.21 

37. 

38. 

Montgomery 
Benton 

1.18 
1.17 

39. 

Chickasaw 

1.15 

State  of  Iowa 

1.12 

40. 

Delaware 

1.12 

41. 

Poweshiek 

1.07 

42. 

Pocahontas 

1.04 

43. 

Cerro  Gordo 

1.01 

44. 

Scott 

.91 

45. 

Crawford 

.90 

46. 
47. 

Dubuque 
Buchanan 

.89 
.83 

48. 

Madison 

.81 

49. 

Warren 

.81 

50. 

Union 

.80 

51. 
52. 
53. 

Wayne 
Taylor 
Iowa 

.78 
.78 
.76 

54. 

Osceola 

.73 

55. 

Hamilton 

.68 

56. 
57. 
58. 

Page 

Appanoose 

Hardin 

.67 
.66 
.65 

59. 

Howard 

.64 

60. 

Webster 

.60 

74 
89 
87 

91 
40 
70 

85 
50 

1 
52 
11 
55 
46 

49 
8 
10 
57 
97 

53 
84 
25 
41 
56 

45 
22 
37 
73 

Average 

77 

34 
90 
13 
3 
65 

4 
67 
83 
31 
15 

38 
59 
94 
82 
35 

21 
19 
29 
68 
14 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       57 

33 
27 
86 

75 

78 

12 
18 
81 
69 
80 

61 
98 
32 
92 
76 

88 
5 
64 
54 
17 

2 
30 
93 
42 
62 

95 

66 
28 
60 
36 

24 
96 
48 
26 
39 

58 
79 
71 
51 

One  is  impressed  in  this  table  with  the  comparatively  large 
number  of  counties  having  a  rate  above  the  State  average, 
thirty-nine  as  compared  with  thirty-one  above  the  State  average 
for  rate  of  criminal  convictions,  the  largest  number  hitherto 
noted.  This  creates  a  presumption  tliat  dependence  is  less  pe- 
culiarly characteristic  of  the  counties  of  large  population  than 
is  criminality.  The  range  above  the  state  average  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  that  below,  though  the  contrast  is  hardly  as 


61. 

Carroll 

.60 

62. 

Mills 

.57 

63. 

Grundy 

.56 

64. 

Clarke 

.56 

65. 

Monona 

.52 

66. 

Pottawattamie 

.51 

67. 

Floyd 

.51 

68. 

Kossuth 

.50 

69. 

Guthrie 

.50 

70. 

Einggold 

.49 

71. 

Plymouth 

.46 

72. 

Monroe 

.46 

73. 

Emmet 

.46 

74. 

Shelby 

.44 

75. 

Ida 

.44 

76. 

Adair 

.44 

77. 

Black  Hawk 

.44 

78. 

Greene 

.44 

79. 

Sioux 

.42 

80. 

Story 

.41 

81. 

Woodbury 

.40 

82. 

Cherokee 

.40 

83. 

Franklin 

.38 

84. 

Humboldt 

.38 

85. 

Dickinson 

.37 

86. 

Audubon 

.36 

87. 

Buena  Vista 

.35 

88. 

Cass 

.35 

89. 

Sac 

.34 

90. 

Calhoun 

.33 

91. 

Wright 

.32 

92. 

Adams 

.30 

93. 

Harrison 

.30 

94. 

0  'Brien 

.29 

95. 

Mitchell 

.25 

96. 

Palo  Alto 

.22 

97. 

Clay 

.21 

98. 

Lyon 

.21 

99. 

Winnebago 

.20 

58  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

great  as  has  been  true  in  previous  tables,  the  figures  are  2.35 
and  .92  respectively.  With  the  elimination  of  the  most  ex- 
treme example,  the  range  stands  at  1.47  above  and  .92  below. 
Wliile  considerably  more  than  half  the  counties  fall  beloM^  the 
State  rate,  the  evidence  for  concentration  in  counties  of  large 
population  or  high  urban  per  cent  is  not  very  conclusive. 

Considering  now  the  correlation  in  rank,  we  find  similarly 
inconclusive  results.  In  the  upper  thirty-nine  counties  we 
would  normally  expect  to  find  sixteen  of  the  first  thirty-nine 
counties  in  any  other  uncorrelated  series.  There  are,  however, 
only  thirteen  of  the  first  thirty-nine  in  urban  per  cent.  The 
thirty-nine  would  normally  contain  about  twenty  from  the  first 
half  of  another  series;  there  are  twenty-one  of  the  upper  half 
in  urban  per  cent.  The  lower  twenty  contain  only  three  from 
the  lower  twenty  in  urban  per  cent  instead  of  the  normal  four. 
From  the  lower  half  we  find  ten,  the  normal  proportion.  These 
figures  certainly  give  no  indication  of  any  correlation  between 
rank  in  rate  of  inmates  in  county  homes  and  rank  in  urban  per 
cent.  Spearman's  formula  gives  a  coefficient  of  correlation  of 
,042,  with   .043  as  the  approximate  probable  error. 

The  table  is  different  in  many  respects  from  any  hitherto 
considered.  The  first  four  counties  contain  no  city  of  any 
great  size,  quite  unusual  in  itself.  The  fifth  county,  Des 
Moines,  contains  a  large  city,  namely  Burlington,  but  one  which 
in  various  other  tables  has  shown  an  unusually  low  rate.  The 
next  counties,  Wapello  and  Linn  have,  however,  ordinarily 
shown  high  rates.  The  comparatively  low  rate  of  Polk  county 
is  peculiar.  Black  Hawk  and  Woodbury  counties,  despite  their 
large  city  population,  rank  quite  low,  seventy-seventh  and 
eighty-first  respectively. 

The  State  reports  give  no  such  data  in  regard  to  the  rural 
and  urban  distribution  of  inmates  of  county  homes.  A  ques- 
tionnaire sent  to  county  home  stewards  secured  apparently 
trustworthy  information  from  counties  containing  something 
over  one-eighth  of  the  State's  population.  The  results  are  sum- 
marized in  Table  XVII.  Rates  for  the  larger  urban  centers 
are  not  very  trustworthy  because  of  the  small  number  covered. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       59 
TABLE  XVII«9 

Kural  and  Urban  Inmates  of  County  Homes,  August  1916 
Eural  and  urban  No.  inmates  per 

division  1000  population 

Total    population    covered  1.29 

Open  country  .92 

Villages  and  tovpns  1.72 

Towns  2000-4000  2.61 

Towns  4000-8000  .48 

Cities  8000-25000  (a) 

Cities  25000  and  over  1.74 

This  table  parallels  pretty  closely  those  of  like  type  for  var- 
ious phases  of  criminality,  and  requires  little  comment.  Open 
country  rates  are,  as  usual,  low.  Village  rates  are  somewhat 
higher  than  hitherto,  as  compared  with  larger  urban  centers, 
though  chance  variation  may  account  for  much  in  the  rates  of 
larger  urban  centers. 

OUTDOOR  RELIEF 
The  number  of  inmates  in  the  county  institution  taken  alone 
is  no  accurate  index  of  the  poverty  and  dependence  of  the 
county.  It  may  be  merely  an  indication,  of  a  policy  on  the  part 
of  the  supervisors  to  emphasize  indoor  relief  and  limit  outdoor 
relief.  For  the  statistics  to  be  of  value  they  must  be  checked 
by  comparison  with  the  statistics  for  outdoor  relief.  Seemingly 
reliable  figures  on  this  point  are  contained  in  the  annual  re- 
ports of  the  State  Auditor  beginning  with  the  fiscal  year  1909. 
The  material  thus  obtained  is  summarized  in  Table  XVIII. 

TABLE  XVIII^" 

Comparative  Table,  Expenditure  for  Public  Outdoor  Belief  in  Towa 
Counties,  1909-1913 

Rank  of  county 
Per  capita  in  per  cent  of 

County  expenditure  urban  population 

1.  Scott  $.570  3 

2.  Emmet  .554  32 

3.  Poweshiek  .483  34 

4.  Dubuque  .481  4 

5.  Clinton  .459  8 

(a)  No  city  of  this  size  in  counties  covered. 


60  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


6. 

Webster 

.423 

7. 

Black  Hawk 

.354 

8. 

Delaware 

.352 

9. 

Calhoun 

.348 

10. 

Cass 

.333 

11. 

Carroll 

.326 

12. 

Cedar 

.325 

13. 

Henry 

.322 

14. 

Wapello 

.321 

15. 

Boone 

.318 

16. 

Ida 

.307 

17. 

Crawford 

.301 

18. 

Story 

.296 

19. 

Appanoose 

.288 

20. 

Pottawattamie 

.286 

21. 

Tama 

.286 

22. 

Buena  Vista 

.282 

23. 

Madison 

.278 

24. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.274 

25. 

Pocahontas 

.273 

26. 

Mahaska 

.269 

27. 

Jones 

.267 

28. 

Mills 

.263 

29. 

Van  Buren 

.257 

30. 

Monroe 

.257 

31. 

Johnson 

.257 

32. 

Washington 

.253 

33. 

Woodbury 

.253 

34. 

Marion 

.253 

35. 

Keokuk 

.250 

36. 

Mitchell 

.247 

37. 

Floyd 

.243 

State  of  Iowa 

.238 

38. 

Harrison 

.230 

39. 

Union 

.229 

40. 

Worth 

.229 

41. 

Jackson 

.227 

42. 

Franklin 

.226 

43. 

Lucas 

.223 

44. 

Davis 

.218 

45. 

Iowa 

.215 

46. 

Kossuth 

.214 

47. 

Linn 

.212 

48. 

Wayne 

.210 

49. 

Benton 

.208 

50. 

Wright 

.201 

51. 

0  'Brien 

.201 

52. 

Polk 

.200 

53. 

Plymouth 

.200 

14 
5 
77 
36 
28 

33 

74 

46 

9 

20 

76 
65 
17 
19 
12 

52 
66 
83 
13 
90 

41 
40 
27 
72 
98 

23 
50 
2 
56 
45 

39 

18 

Average 

48 
15 
97 

47 
98 
49 
99 
94 

81 
7 
38 
37 
24 

26 

1 

61 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      61 

82 
53 

21 
35 
44 
22 
59 

86 
55 
89 
29 
6 

69 

85 
54 
62 
64 

30 
10 
43 
58 
60 

80 
31 
11 

87 
57 

96 
51 
91 
68 
92 

42 
70 
71 
75 
73 

79 
63 
25 
78 
16 

67 
88 
95 
84 

The  similarity  of  this  table  to  Table  XVI  as  to  imnates  of 
the  county  homes  will  be  at  once  observed,  namely,  the  large 


54. 

Osceola 

.197 

55. 

Jasper 

.197 

56. 
57. 

Page 
Hamilton 

.194 
.194 

58. 

Bremer 

.193 

59. 
60. 

Moutgomery 
Taylor 

.192 
.192 

61. 

62. 

Grundy 
Decatur 

.187 
.186 

63. 

Fremont 

.185 

64. 

Hardin 

.179 

65. 

Des  Moines 

.176 

66. 

Guthrie 

.173 

67. 

Hancock 

.173 

68. 

Sioux 

.173 

69. 

Dickinson 

.171 

70. 

Greene 

.171 

71. 

Cherokee 

.165 

72. 

Muscatine 

.160 

73. 

74. 

Fayette 
Palo  Alto 

.160 

.158 

75. 

Sac 

.158 

76. 

77. 

Ringgold 
Warren 

.157 
.156 

78. 

Lee 

.154 

79. 

Allamakee 

.153 

80. 

Louisa 

.153 

81. 

Adams 

.152 

82. 
83. 

Winnebago 
Winneshiek 

.152 
.152 

84. 

Howard 

.150 

85. 

Shelby 

.147 

86. 

Humboldt 

.146 

87. 
88. 
89. 

Clayton 

Lyon 

Clarke 

.144 
.142 
.140 

90. 

Chickasaw 

.139 

91. 
92. 

Clay 
Jefferson 

.139 
.136 

93. 

Dallas 

.136 

94. 

Monona 

.134 

95. 

Marshall 

.121 

96. 

Buchanan 

.114 

97. 

Adair 

.112 

98. 

Audubon 

.105 

99. 

Butler 

.101 

62  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

number  of  counties  ranking  above  the  State  average,  thirty- 
seven  in  this  case  as  compared  with  thirty-nine  in  the  preced- 
ing table,  and  contrasted  with  thirty-one,  the  highest  number  in 
any  table  on  criminality.  The  range  above  is.  332  as  contrasted 
with  .131  below.  From  these  figures  no  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence can  be  drawn  as  to  the  existence  of  the  higher  rate  in 
counties  of  larger  population  and  high  urban  per  cent,  though 
on  the  other  hand  its  existence  is  not  disproved. 

Further  study  of  the  distribution  of  the  counties  in  the  ser- 
ies, however,  tends  to  create  a  presumption  that  such  a  correla- 
tion does  exist.  Among  the  upper  thirty-seven  counties  we  find, 
instead  of  fourteen,  the  normal  number  in  absence  of  any  corre- 
lation, twenty  of  the  first  thirty-seven  counties  in  urban  per 
cent.  Instead  of  the  normal  nineteen,  we  find  twenty-five  from 
the  upper  half  in  urban  per  cent.  Among  the  lower  twenty, 
instead  of  the  normal  four,  we  find  six  of  the  lower  twenty  in 
urban  per  cent.  In  the  same  twenty  we  find  instead  of  the 
normal  ten,  seventeen  from  the  lower  half  of  the  counties  in 
urban  per  cent.  Though  in  some  cases  small,  every  variation  is 
in  the  direction  of  positive  correlation.  This  is  in  direct  con- 
trast with  the  distribution  in  the  preceding  table  which  offered 
no  conclusive  evidence.  The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  shows 
a  marked  difference,  giving  a  coefficient  of  correlation  of  .248 
as  contrasted  with  one  of  .042  with  a  probable  error  of  approx- 
imately .043. 

A  further  contrast  is  offered  by  the  fact  that  of  the  first  five 
counties,  three  instead  of  one  contain  large  cities.  Remarkable 
is  the  fact  that  Des  Moin,es  County,  ranking  fifth  in  the  preced- 
ing table,  in  this  ranks  sixty-fifth.  Polk  County  ranks  even 
lower  than  before,  while  Black  Hawk  and  Woodbury,  remark- 
ably low  in  the  preceding  series,  here  show  a  much  higher  rank, 
thougk  Woodbury  is  still  not  ver>'  high. 

METHOD  OF  CORRELATION  OF  EVIDENCE  AS  TO 
DEPENDENCE 

The  few  instances  noted  at  the  close  of  the  previous  section 
indicate  the  lack  of  close  correlation  between  the  two  tables,  and 
the  necessity  for  a  combination  of  the  two  in  order  to  ascertain 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  the  comparative  amount  of  de- 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       63 

pendence  in  the  various  counties.  Figures  as  to  the  total 
amount  expended  by  each  county  upon  the  relief  of  the  poor 
could  have  been  secured  from  the  State  Auditor's  report,  but 
in  the  opinion  of  the  investigator  these  would  not  have  been 
very  serviceable.  In  many  counties,  the  first  qualification  of  a 
satisfactory  county  home  steward  is  that  he  must  be  an  excellent 
farm  manager  and  must  make  the  farm  pay.  Accordingly,  the 
net  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  county  farm  may  be  practically 
no  index  at  all  of  the  amount  of  dependence  represented  by  the 
inmates  of  the  institution.  Number  of  inmates  rather  than  ex- 
penditure is  the  proper  evidence. 

The  problem  was  to  combine  the  evidence  of  a  table  giving 
number  of  inmates  per  thousand  of  population  and  one  giving 
per  capita  expenditure.  An  attempt  at  solution  was  made,  not 
by  combining  the  actual  figures  for  each  county  in  each  series, 
but  by  adding  the  rank  of  each  county  in  one  table  with  its 
rank  in  the  other  and  then  ranking  the  counties  in  the  order  of 
the  resulting  figures.  While  open  to  some  objections  because 
it  does  not  allow  for  wide  variations  in  the  degree  of  differ- 
ence between  counties  adjoining  in  rank,  and  because  it  gives 
rise  to  numerous  instances  where  the  rank  is  the  same,  this 
method  seemed  sufficiently  accurate  to  be  of  service.  The  result 
is  shown  in  Table  XIX. 

TABLE  XIX^^ 

Comparative  Table,   Banking  of   Iowa   Counties  in   Total  Dependency, 

a  Combination  of  the  Number  of  County  Home  Inmates  and 

Outdoor  Relief  Expenditure 

Home  outdoor  Per  eent   of 

inmates  relief  urban  population 

6  14  9 

13  12  74 

12  15  20 

27  5  8 

4  29  72 

25  13  46 

10  31  23 

2  41  47 

22  21  52 

12  27  40 

41  3  34 

44  1  3 


Total 
dependency 

1. 

Wapello 

2. 

Cedar 

3. 

Boone 

4. 

Clinton 

5. 

Van   Buren 

6. 

Henry 

7. 

Johnson 

8. 

Jackson 

8. 

Tama 

10. 

Jones 

10. 

Poweshiek 

12. 

Scott 

64 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


13. 

Delaware 

40 

8 

77 

14. 

Dubuque 

46 

4 

4 

15. 

Washington 

20 

32 

50 

16. 

Linn 

7 

47 

7 

17. 

Davis 

11 

44 

99 

18. 

Mahaska 

34 

26 

41 

19. 

Crawford 

45 

17 

65 

20. 

Webster 

60 

6 

14 

21. 

Bremer 

9 

58 

44 

21. 

Cerro  Gordo 

43 

24 

13 

21. 

Pocahontas 

42 

25 

90 

24. 

Lucas 

26 

43 

49 

24. 

Marion 

35 

34 

56 

26. 

Des   Moines 

5 

65 

6 

26. 

Worth 

30 

40 

97 

28. 

Keokuk 

36 

35 

45 

28. 

Madison 

48 

23 

83 

30. 

Carroll 

61 

11 

33 

31. 

Polk 

21 

52 

1 

32. 

Emmet 

73 

2 

32 

33. 

Appanoose 

57 

19 

19 

34. 

Fremont 
State  of  Iowa 

14 

63 

89 

Av 

35. 

Fayette 

8 

73 

43 

36. 

Black  Hawk 

77 

7 

5 

37. 

Decatur 

24 

62 

55 

37. 

Hancock 

19 

67 

85 

37. 

Jasper 

31 

55 

53 

37. 

Pottawattamie 

66 

20 

12 

41. 

Benton 

38 

49 

37 

42. 

Union 

50 

39 

15 

43. 

Mills 

62 

28 

27 

44. 

Ida 

75 

16 

76 

45. 

Jefferson 

1 

92 

63 

46. 

Allamakee 

15 

79 

87 

47. 

Montgomery 

37 

59 

22 

48. 

Cass 

88 

10 

28 

48. 

Iowa 

53 

45 

94 

48. 

Marshall 

3 

95 

16 

48. 

Story 

80 

18 

17 

52. 

Calhoun 

90 

9 

36 

52. 

Wayne 

51 

48 

38 

52. 

Winneshiek 

16 

83 

91 

55. 

Muscatine 

28 

72 

10 

56. 

Lee 

23 

78 

11 

57. 

Monroe 

72 

30 

98 

58. 

Floyd 

67 

37 

18 

59. 

Clayton 

18 

87 

70 

60. 

Osceola 

54 

54 

82 

61. 

Buena  A''ista 

87 

22 

66 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       65 


61. 

Louisa 

29 

80 

57 

63. 

Hamilton 

55 

57 

35 

63. 

Page 

56 

56 

21 

63. 

Taylor 

52 

60 

59 

66. 

Woodbury 

81 

33 

2 

67. 

Kossuth 

68 

48 

81 

68. 

Hardin 

58 

64 

29 

69. 

Grundy 

63 

61 

86 

69. 

Plymouth 

71 

73 

61 

71. 

Franklin 

83 

42 

93 

72. 

Dallas 

33 

93 

25 

72. 

Warren 

49 

77 

31 

74. 

Chickasaw 

39 

90 

73 

75. 

Butler 

32 

99 

84 

75. 

Harrison 

93 

38 

48 

77. 

Mitchell 

95 

36 

39 

78. 

Guthrie 

69 

66 

69 

79. 

Wright 

91 

50 

24 

80. 

Buchanan 

47 

96 

67 

80. 

Howard 

59 

84 

68 

82. 

0  'Brian 

94 

51 

26 

83. 

Einggold 

70 

76 

80 

84. 

Sioux 

79 

68 

54 

85. 

Greene 

78 

70 

64 

86. 

Cherokee 

82 

71 

30 

86. 

Clarke 

64 

89 

75 

88. 

Dickinson 

85 

69 

62 

89. 

Monona 

65 

94 

78 

89. 

Shelby 

74 

85 

92 

91. 

Sac 

89 

75 

60 

92. 

Humboldt 

84 

86 

42 

92. 

Palo  Alto 

96 

74 

58 

94. 

Adair 

76 

97 

88 

94. 

Adams 

92 

81 

96 

96. 

Winnebago 

99 

82 

51 

97. 

Audubon 

86 

98 

95 

98. 

Lyon 

98 

88 

71 

99. 

Clay 

97 

91 

79 

In  a  series  obtained  as  in  this  comparison,  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  locate  the  State  average.  If  the  State  as  a  whole  had 
been  given,  a  rank  in  each  series,  and  the  necessary  changes  in 
the  rank  of  the  counties  had  been  made,  it  would  have  had  an 
average  rank  equal  to  that  of  Fremont  County.  Accordingly, 
it  is  given  the  same  rank  in  the  combined  table.  There  are 
then  thirty-three  counties  with  a  i-ank  above  that  of  the  State 
as  a  whole.  No  satisfactory  statement  of  range  can  be  given 
from  this  table  based  upon  ranks.    It  may  be  of  interest  to  note 


66  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

that  the  suras  of  the  rankings  in  the  original  tables  of  the  ex- 
treme counties  in  the  combined  table  are  twenty  and  one  hun- 
dred eiglity-eight  respectively,  as  compared  with  a  possible  two 
and  one  hundred  ninety-eight  under  perfect  correlation.  The 
two  tables  as  a  whole  would  show  a  considerable  degree  of  corre- 
lation, but  individual  counties  show  wide  variations.  The  fact 
that  only  thirty-three  counties  have  a  rank  above  that  of  the 
State  as  a  whole  again  suggests  the  idea  of  correlation  between 
dependence  and  large  population  and  high  urban  per  cent. 

Further  analysis  of  the  table  would  indicate  at  least  a  slight 
degree  of  correlation.  In  the  thirty-three  counties  ranking 
higher  than  the  State  as  a  whole,  instead  of  eleven,  the  normal 
number  in  case  of  no  correlation,  we  find  fourteen  from  the  first 
thirty-three  in  urban  per  cent.  The  same  thirty-three  counties 
contain,  instead  of  the  normal  seventeen,  twenty-two  from  the 
upper  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per  cent.  The  lower  twenty 
counties  in  the  combined  dependence  series  contain,  instead  of 
the  normal  four,  five  of  the  lower  twenty  counties  in  urban  per 
cent  and,  instead  of  the  normal  ten,  seventeen  from  the  lower 
half  of  the  same  series.  It  is  clear  then  that  in  every  case  the 
variations  from  the  normal  distribution  are  in  the  direction  of 
positive  correlation.^^ 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  first  ten  counties  contain 
but  one  having  a  city  of  over  25,000  population,  though  the 
counties  containing  the  larger  cities  begin  to  appear  immediately 
afterward.  Polk  County  with  the  one  really  large  city  in  the 
State  ranks  but  slightly  above  the  State  average.  It  appears 
that  dependence  is  less  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  larger 
cities  than  is  criminality.  This  may,  however,  be  very  largely 
due  to  the  better  organization  of  voluntary  charity  in  these 
cities,  no  indication  of  which  appears  in  these  statistics. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  exact  significance  of  the 
records  of  individual  counties  can  not  be  ascertained  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  local  condition  and  policy  of  poor  relief.  In- 
vestigations in  Grinnell  and  Ottumwa  have  shown,  that  indis- 
criminate granting  of  relief  accounted  at  least  in  part  for  the 
records  of  Poweshiek  and  Wapello  counties.  The  failure  to 
give  adequate  relief  may  account  for  low  records  in  some 
other  places. 


VI 

DEFECTIVES 

SCOPE  OF  STUDY  OF  DEFECTIVES 

In  the  preceding  sections  an  effort  has  been  made  to  investi- 
gate the  records  of  the  various  Iowa  communities  in  two  phases 
of  social  infection,  crime  and  dependency.  A  third  pliase,  that 
of  the  defectives,  will  now  be  considered.  In  the  study  of  de- 
fectives no  effort  has  been  made  to  include  all  defectives,  but 
only  those  a  consideration  of  whom  should  logically  be  included 
in  the  scope  of  a  study  of  social  infection.  In  order  for  any 
class  of  defectives  to  warrant  such  consideration,  it  has  been 
felt  that  the  defect  should  be,  first  one  of  sufficiently  wide- 
spread and  serious  character  to  be  of  social  significance,  and 
secondly  one  in  a  measure  at  least  due  to  social  causes  and 
amenable  to  social  control.  The  scope  of  the  study  was  likewise 
limited  in  a  measure  by  the  character  of  the  data  available. 
For  these  reasons,  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  include  within 
this  study  only  the  tuberculous,  the  feeble-minded  and  the  in- 
sane. Owing  to  the  character  of  the  data  available  a  separate 
study  of  epileptics  has  been  impossible,  and  it  has  proved  neces- 
sary to  classify  them  with  either  the  insane  or  the  feeble- 
minded.^'^ 

STATISTICAL  BASIS 
The  statistical  material  forming  the  basis  for  this  study  was 
secured  primarily  from  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board 
of  Control,  which  furnished  fairly  complete  data  for  all  state 
institutions,  and  certain  data  for  county  and  private  institu- 
tions. In  a  number  of  instances  supplementary  data  has  been 
secured  through  personal  correspondence  with  county  and  pri- 
vate institutions,  and  with  county  officials,  through  question- 
naires and  from  county  financial  reports. 


(67) 


68  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

LIMITATIONS  OF  STATISTICS 

Statistics  in  regard  to  defectives,  perhaps,  even  more  than 
those  in  regard  to  criminality  and  dependence  have  their  limi- 
tations. In  this  study  only  defectives  in  institutions  could  be 
considered  and,  in  the  case  of  many  local  communities  the  rates 
given  will  be  more  a  measure  of  the  degree  of  care  and  super- 
vision of  defectives,  than  of  the  serious  character  of  the  local 
problem.  As  has  been  repeatedly  said  in  earlier  sections  of  the 
study,  the  true  signifieence  of  the  record  of  any  local  community 
can  not  be  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  local  conditions 
and  of  local  policy  in  regard  to  the  care  of  the  class  under  con- 
sideration. This,  it  is  believed,  must  be  borne  carefully  in  mind 
in  a  study  of  tuberculous  and  the  feeble-minded,  but  is  of  much 
less  significance  in  a  consideration  of  the  insane,  for  whom  the 
demand  for  custodial  care  is  much  more  imperative.  When  one 
passes  from  the  consideration  of  local  communities  to  wider 
areas,  these  limitations  are  less  serious  since  the  local  divergences 
in  policy  tend  to  counterbalance  one  another.  With  these  points 
clearly  in  mind  we  may  proceed  to  a  consideration  in  detail  of 
the  tuberculous,  the  feeble-minded,  and  the  insane,  taking  them 
up  in  the  order  named. 

TUBERCULOUS 

Iowa,  as  other  states,  has  of  recent  years  seen  a  great  de- 
velopment of  public  interest  and  concern  in  regard  to  the  men- 
ace of  tuberculosis,  and  in  efforts  toward  prevention  and  cure. 
After  an  investigation  by  the  State  Board  of  Control  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  disease  in  Iowa,  the  General  Assembly  in  1906 
established  "a  state  sanatorium  for  the  care  and  treatment  of 
persons  afflicted  with  incipient  pulmonary  tuberculosis."  This 
institution,  was  opened  February  1st,  1908.'''*  Since  that  time  it 
has  been  much  enlarged  and  provision  made  for  the  treatment 
of  more  advanced  cases.  Since  1906  a  considerable  amount  of 
educational  w^ork  has  been  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Board  of  Control,  through  the  printing  and  circulation  of 
pamphlets  and  the  employment  of  lecturers. 

In  addition  the  bill  passed  in  1909,  permitting  counties  to 
establish  public  liospitals,  authorized  them  to  establish  also  de- 
partments for  the  care  of  tuberculous  patients.    An  act  of  1913 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       69 

increased  the  tax  allowed  for  the  support  of  such  county  hos- 
pitals. Only  four  counties  have  up  to  date  made  any  provision 
for  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  Scott,  Woodbury,  Polk  and  Wapel- 
lo, and  of  these  the  Wapello  institution  was  not  open  for  patients 
till  the  close  of  the  period  covered  by  this  study.  Dubuque 
County  has  voted  to  establish  a  sanatorium,  Black  Hawk  County 
will  vote  on  the  matter  this  fall,  (1917),  and  Polk  County  will 
decide  whether  or  not  to  provide  better  facilities  for  care  of 
the  tuberculous. 

Practically  full  data  in  regard  to  the  State  Sanatorium  at 
Oakdale  is  available  in  published  State  reports.  Statistics  in 
regard  to  the  count j^  institutions  could  be  secured  only  by  cor- 
respondence or  from  county  financial  reports.  The  statistics 
thus  obtained  will  be  utilized  first  for  a  comparison  of  the  rec- 
ords of  the  individual  counties  of  Iowa,  secondly  in  a  compari- 
son of  the  various  rural  and  urban  divisions  of  the  State's  pop- 
ulation, and  finally  for  a  comparison  of  individual  cities. 

RECORDS  OF  COUNTIES 
The  data  secured  in  regard  to  admissions  to  institutions  from 
the  various  counties  is  summarized  in  Table  XX.  As  in  preced- 
ing tables  the  counties  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  rank, 
and  an  extra  column  gives  for  comparison  the  rank  of  each 
county  in  per  cent  of  urban  population. 

TABLE  XXS5 


Comparative  Table,  Admissions  to  Public  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium 
from  Iowa  Counties,  1908-1916 


Bank  of  count}'  in 

No. 

per  1000 

per  cent  of  urban 

County 

population 

population 

1. 

Poweshiek 

3.47 

34 

2. 

Scott 

3.33 

3 

3. 

Johnson 

3.32 

23 

4. 

Worth 

3.32 

97 

5. 

Linn 

3.28 

7 

6. 

Polk 

3.00 

1 

7. 

Boone 

2.43 

20 

8. 

Bremer 

2.21 

44 

9. 

Benton 

2.03 

37 

10. 

Humboldt 

1.89 

42 

70  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


11. 

Keokuk 

1.84 

12. 

Decatur 

1.84 

1.3. 

Woodbury 

1.69 

14. 

Lee 

1.63 

1.^. 

Lucas 

1.63 

16. 

Iowa 

1.63 

17. 

Marshall 

1.52 

18. 

Cedar 

1.52 

19. 

Davis 

1.50 

20. 

Van  Buren 

1.46 

21. 

Story 

1.45 

22. 

Clinton 

1.39 

23. 

Tama 

1.35 

24. 

Hardin 

1.34 

25. 

Wapello 

1.32 

26. 

Emmet 

1.32 

27. 

Kossuth 

1.32 

28. 

Jefferson 

1.32 

29. 

Des  Moines 

1.27 

30. 

Greene 

1.25 

31. 

Palo  Alto 

1.23 

32. 

Taylor 

1.23 

33. 

Black  Hawk 

1.23 

State  of  Iowa 

1.18 

34. 

Winnebago 

1.18 

35. 

Cerro  Gordo 

1.16 

36. 

Washington 

1.15 

37. 

Jones 

1.10 

38. 

Ida 

1.06 

39. 

Winneshiek 

1.06 

40. 

Dubuque 

1.04 

41. 

Hamilton 

1.04 

42. 

Hancock 

1.02 

43. 

Muscatine 

1.02 

44. 

Fayette 

1.00 

45. 

Clayton 

.94 

46. 

Warren 

.93 

47. 

Webster 

.92 

48. 

Henry 

.91 

49. 

Pocahontas 

.88 

50. 

Adair 

.83 

51. 

Buchanan 

.81 

52. 

Union 

.78 

53. 

Butler 

.76 

54. 

Jackson 

.75 

55. 

Mahaska 

.74 

56. 

Calhoun 

.70 

57. 

Louisa 

.70 

58. 

Einggold 

.70 

45 
55 
2 
11 
49 

94 
16 

74 
99 

72 

17 

8 
52 
29 

9 

32 
81 
63 
6 
64 

58 

59 

5 

Average 

51 
13 

50 
40 
76 
91 
4 

35 

85 
10 
43 
70 

31 
14 
46 
90 

88 

67 
15 
84 
47 
41 

36 
57 
80 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       71 

69 

77 

39 
33 
95 
38 

24 

93 
60 

86 
73 

18 

66 
75 
53 
65 
71 

21 
56 

25 
26 

82 

87 
98 
61 
48 
68 

62 
30 
12 
83 
28 

19 
79 
54 
96 
89 

27 
92 

22 

78 

On  examination  of  this  table,  one  notes  at  once  that  exactly 
one-third  of  the  counties,  or  thirty-three,  have  a  rate  above  the 
State  average,  and  two-thirds  a  rate  below.  This  may  be  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  range  above  the  State  average  is 
larger  than  that  below,  2.29  as  compared  with  1.18,  but  this 
wide  difference  in  range  largely  disappears  after  the  first  six 


59. 

Guthrie 

.69 

60. 

Delaware 

.67 

61. 

Mitchell 

.67 

62. 

Carroll 

.65 

63. 

Audubon 

.63 

64. 

Wayne 

.62 

65. 

Wright 

.61 

66. 

Franklin 

.61 

67. 

Sac 

.60 

68. 

Grundy 

.59 

69. 

Chickasaw 

.59 

70. 

Floyd 

.58 

71. 

Buena  Vista 

.56 

72. 

Clarke 

.56 

73. 

Jasper 

.55 

74. 

Crawford 

.55 

75. 

Lyon 

.55 

76. 

Page 

.54 

77. 

Marion 

.53 

78. 

Dallas 

.47 

79. 

0  'Brien 

.46 

80. 

Osceola 

.45 

81. 

Allamakee 

.40 

82. 

Monroe 

.39 

83. 

Plymouth 

.39 

84. 

Harrison 

.39 

85. 

Howard 

.39 

86. 

Dickinson 

.37 

87. 

Cherokee 

.36 

88. 

Pottawattamie 

.36 

89. 

Madison 

.32 

90. 

Cass 

.32 

91. 

Appanoose 

.31 

92. 

Clay 

.31 

93. 

Sioux 

.28 

94. 

Adams 

.27 

95. 

Fremont 

.26 

96. 

Mills 

.25 

97. 

Shelby 

.18 

98. 

Montgomery 

.12 

99. 

Monona 

.00 

72  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

counties,  so  that  this  explanation  alone  is  insufficient.  A  pre- 
sumption is  created  that  the  counties  above  the  state  average 
have  a  larger  population,  and  parallel  with  it,  a  larger  per  cent 
of  urban  population  than  those  below.  That  this  inference  is 
not  unfounded  is  borne  out  by  a  comparison  of  the  first  thirty- 
three  counties  and  the  last  twenty  counties  in  the  table,  with  the 
ranks  of  these  counties  in  per  cent  of  urban  population.  In- 
stead of  the  normal  eleven  the  first  thirty-three  counties  in- 
clude within  their  number  fifteen  of  the  first  twenty  counties 
in  per  cent  of  urban  population.  Instead  of  a  normal  seven- 
teen, the  same  thirtj^-three  contain  twenty-one  counties  from 
the  upper  half  in  urban  per  cent.  A  like  correlation  is  found 
at  the  other  end  of  the  table.  The  twenty  counties  lowest  in 
rank  in  admission  to  sanatoria  include  seven  of  the  lower  twenty 
and  thirteen  of  the  lower  half  of  the  counties  in  urban  per 
cent,  instead  of  the  normal  four  and  ten  respectively.  There 
seems  therefore  pretty  clear  evidence  of  the  correlation  between 
rank  in  admission  to  the  sanatoria  an.d  rank  in  urban  per  cent. 
Use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives  .185  as  the  coefficient  of  corre 
lation,  with  only  .043  as  the  probable  error. 

Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  records  of  individual 
counties,  we  are  somewhat  surprised  to  find  Poweshiek  County 
with  the  highest  rate  of  admission.  This  county  con.tains  no 
city  of  importance,  and  has  had  very  efficient  social  work  car- 
ried on  in  its  largest  town,  Grinnell,  the  scope  of  which  has 
been  enlarged  to  cover  the  county.  This  record  must  be  due,  at 
least  in  considerable  measure,  to  popular  education  in  regard  to 
the  necessity  of  caring  for  the  tuberculous,  and  to  a  generous 
policy  in  regard  to  their  support  in  institutions. 

Of  the  next  five  counties,  Scott,  Johnson,  Worth,  Linn,  and 
Polk,  the  high  rank  of  four  of  them  can  best  be  explained  by 
the  close  proximity  of  sanatoria,  so  that  both  people  and  offi- 
cials are  well  aware  of  the  facilities  available  and  of  their  value. 
Both  Scott  and  Polk  counties  have  established  county  tuber- 
culosis sanatoria.  Johnson  County  and  Linn  Count.v  are  in 
most  direct  proximity  and  have  easiest  access  to  the  state 
sanatorium  at  Oakdale.  The  investigator  is  unable  to  offer  any 
explanation  for  the  record  of  Worth,  a  county  with  no  large 
cities  or  mines,  and  not  in  close  proximity.    Like  Boone  County, 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       73 

seventh  in  rank,  it  has  direct  railway  connections  with  Cedar 
Eapids,  one  terminus  of  the  internrban  on  which  Oakdale  is 
situated,  but  many  other  counties  have  as  direct  access.  Yet  it 
must  be  noted  that  three  out  of  the  next  four  comities,  Bremer, 
Benton,  and  Keokuk  have  similar  direct  access.  Woodbury 
County,  thirteenth  in  rank,  has  a  county  sanatorium.  The 
reason  for  the  records  of  Humboldt  and  Decatur  is  not  appar- 
ent. A  number  of  the  counties  next  following  in  the  table  are 
counties  near  at  hand,  having  direct  access  to  sanatoria,  or  with 
high  urban  per  cent.  The  most  vivid  impression  one  obtains 
from  a  superficial  examination  of  the  records  of  the  various 
counties  is  that  of  the  comparatively  high  rank  of  counties 
located  near  or  with  direct  access  to  institutions  for  care  of 
the  tuberculous. 

Some  counties  have  unexpectedly  low  records.  Botli  Des 
]\Ioines  and  Black  Hawk,  ranking  twenty-ninth  and  thirty- 
third  respectively,  are  comparatively  low  when  we  consider 
their  high  urban  per  cent.  This  is  more  true  in  the  case  of 
Dubuque  County,  ranking  fortieth.  Muscatine  County,  with  its 
industrial  troubles  and  bad  record  in  juvenile  delinquency, 
ranks  only  forty-third.  Mahaska,  never  below  twentieth  in 
criminality  or  dependence  tables,  here  ranks  fifty-fifth.  Mon- 
roe and  Appanoose  counties,  with  the  highest  per  cent  of  popu- 
lation engaged  in  coal-mining,  and  unfavorable  records  in  crim- 
inality and  dependence  rank  eighty-second  and  ninety-first  re- 
spectively. All  in  all,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  these  facts  are 
as  much  a  record  of  intelligence  and  interest  in  the  problem  of 
prevention  of  tuberculosis,  as  of  the  seriousness  of  the  prob- 
lem in  each  county. 

RECORD  OF  RURAL  AND  URBAN  DIVISIONS 
In  view  of  the  evidence  already  found  supporting  the  theory 
of  correlation  between,  rate  of  admission  to  sanatoria  and  con- 
centration of  population  in  urban  cen'ers.  Table  XXI  given  be- 
low will  be  of  interest.  This  table  includes  data  only  for  Oak- 
dale.    Parallel  data  for  county  institutions  is  not  available. 


74  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

TABLE  XXP6 

Admissions  to  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium,  1909-1916 
Rural   or  urban  No.   of   admissions 

division  per   1000   population 

Country  .54 

Villages   and  towns  1.25 

Towns  2000-4000  1.38 

Towns  4000-8000  1.07 

Cities  8000-25000  2.44 

Cities  25000  and  over  1.71 

In  this  table  the  low  rate  for  the  open  country  substantiates 
in  a  measure  the  theory  of  correlation  between  admission  rate 
and  concentration  of  population  in  urban  centers.  The  rate  for 
villages  and  towns  under  2000  is,  however,  fairly  high,  exceed- 
ing that  of  towns  of  4000-8000.  The  great  contrast  between 
this  village  rate  and  that  for  the  open  country  is  another  evi- 
dence of  the  fact,  borne  out  by  the  results  found  in  the  study 
of  crime  and  juvenile  delinquency,  that  villages  are  more  urban 
than  rural,  and  that  the  contrast  between  their  problems  and 
those  of  the  open  country  is  greater  than  the  contrast  between 
them  and  those  of  the  larger  urban  centers.  While  all  urban  cen- 
ters have  much  higher  rates  than  does  the  open  country,  the  rate 
does  not  increase  with  any  regularity  as  the  size  of  the  city  in- 
creases. A  similar  phenomenon  appeared  in  the  tables  dealing 
with  penal  commitments  and  inebriate  hospital  commitments. 
Only  in  juvenile  delinquency  is  the  correlation  of  rate  with  size 
of  city  marked.  Especially  surprising  is  the  very  high  rate  for 
cities,  8000-25,000,  higher  even  than  for  cities  above  25,000. 
The  presence  of  county  sanatoria  in  counties  containing  the  three 
largest  cities,  and  the  use  of  a  neighboring  county  institution  by 
one  or  two  other  cities,  accounts  in  part  for  this,  but  not  for  the 
great  disparity  between  this  rate  and  that  for  smaller  urban 
centers. 

RECORD  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CITIES 

Table    XXII    summarizes    for   tis    the    record    of   individual 

cities  in  commitments  to  Oakdale.     The  data  is  incomplete  in 

that  admission  to  county  institutions  are  not  included.     This 

must  considerably  lower  the  rate  for  Davenport,  Des  Moines,  and 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      75 

Sioux  City,  in  Scott,  Polk,  and  Woodbury  comities,  and  slightly 
that  of  Dubuque,  since  Dubuque  County  has  sent  a  number  of 
patients  to  the  Scott  County  institution. 

TABLE  XXII" 


Comparative  Table,  Admissions  to  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium 
From  Cities  of  Iowa,  1909-1916 


Rank  of 

County  in      county  in 

No.  per  1000 

Rank  in 

which             number  of 

City 

population 

population 

located           admissions 

]. 

Towa  City 

5.95 

17 

Johnson 

3 

2. 

Grinnell 

5.16 

25 

Poweshiek 

1 

3. 

Cedar  Rapids 

4.63 

5 

Linn 

5 

4. 

Boone 

3.96 

16 

Boone 

7 

5. 

Cedar  Falls 

3.90 

26 

Black  Hawk 

33 

6. 

Ames 

2.84 

37 

Story 

21 

7. 

Keokuk 

2.78 

13 

Lee 

14 

8. 

Des  Moines 

2.50 

1 

Polk 

6 

9. 

Marion 

2.05 

35 

Linn 

5 

10. 

Fairfield 

2.01 

28 

Jefferson 

28 

11. 

Oskaloosa 

2.01 

18 

Mahaska 

55 

12. 

Ottumwa 

1.86 

10 

Wapello 

25 

13. 

Marshalltown 

1.72 

14 

Marshall 

18 

14. 

Burlington 

1.69 

9 

Des  Moines 

29 

15. 

Davenport 

1.67 

3 

Scott 

2 

IC. 

Oelwein 

1.49 

22 

Fayette 

44 

17. 

Ft.  'Do(1ge 

1.48 

12 

Webster 

47 

18. 

Mason  City 

1.20 

15 

Cerro   Gordo 

35 

19. 

ainton 

1.17 

8 

Clinton 

22 

20. 

Chariton 

1.05 

41 

Lucas 

15 

21. 

Clarinda 

1.04 

40 

Page 

76 

State  of  Iowa 

1.03 

Average 

22. 

Ft.  Madison 

.90 

19 

Lee 

14 

23. 

Muscatine 

.87 

11 

Muscatine 

43 

24. 

Waterloo 

.82 

7 

Black   Hawk 

33 

25. 

Shenandoah 

.80 

27 

Page 

76 

26. 

Sioux  City 

.71 

2 

Woodbury 

13 

27. 

Washington 

.68 

36 

Washington 

36 

28. 

Dubuque 

.60 

4 

Dubuque 

40 

29. 

Centerville 

.58 

20 

Appanoose 

91 

30. 

Cherokee 

.55 

30 

Cherokee 

87 

31. 

Creston 

.43 

21 

Union 

52 

32. 

Perry 

.43 

32 

Dallas 

78 

33. 

Council   Bluffs 

.38 

6 

Pottawattamie 

(  88 

23 

Floyd 

70 

39 

Mills 

96 

38 

Plymouth 

83 

24 

Hamilton 

41 

29 

Monroe 

82 

34 

Cass 

90 

33 

Jasper 

73 

31 

Montgomery 

98 

76  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

34.  Charles  City  .34 

35.  Glenwood  .33 

36.  Le  Mars  .24 

37.  Webster  City  .19 

38.  Albia  .00 

39.  Atlantic  .00 

40.  Newton  .00 

41.  Red  Oak  .00 

This  table  like  the  one  giving  comparative  count}'  records, 
bears  evidence  as  to  the  significance  of  proximity  and  easy  ac- 
cess to  sanatoria.  Iowa  City  and  Cedar  Rapids,  the  cities  most 
conveniently  located,  ranking  first  and  third  respectively. 
Comment  has  already  been  made  upon  the  high  record  of  Powe- 
shiek County  in  which  Grinnell  is  located.  Black  Hawk  County 
had  a  low  rank  comparatively.  Waterloo,  its  largest  city,  par- 
allels this  with  quite  a  low  rate,  but  Cedar  Falls  in  the  same 
county  ranks  high.  Despite  the  presence  of  county  institutions 
at  hand  Des  Moines  and  Davenport  rank  fairly  high  in  ad- 
missions to  Oakdale.  Sioux  City,  however,  ranks  low.  Musca- 
tine has  a  fairly  low  rate  as  also  has  Council  Bluffs.  Oskaloosa 
has  a  high  rank  though  the  rate  of  Mahaska  County  as  a  whole 
is  low,  Centerville  and  Albia  in  Appanoose  and  Monroe  coun- 
ties respectively  rank  low,  Albia  having  no  admissions  at  all  in 
the  six  years  for  which  data  is  available. 

A  marked  feature  in  this  table  is  the  small  number  of  cities 
with  a  record  higher  than  the  State  average,  only  twenty-one, 
as  compared  with  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  in  the  tables  on  in- 
ebriate hospital,  penal,  and  industrial  school  commitments.  In 
view  of  the  lowness  of  the  rate  for  the  open  countiy,  this  makes  it 
evident  that  the  larger  cities  must  for  the  most  part  have  the 
higher  rates.  The  use  of  Spearman's  "foot-rule"  measure  of 
correlation  gives  a  coefficient  of  .193  with  a  probable  error  of 
.067,  fairly  high  when  we  consider  the  incomplete  character  of 
the  data  for  Davenport,  Des  Moines,  Sioux  City,  and  Dubuque, 

Of  the  thirty-seven  counties  in  which  these  forty-one  cities  * 
are  located,  eighteen  come  within  the  upper  thirty-seven  coun- 
ties in  rate  of  admissions  to  tuberculosis  sanatoria.     Of  the 
twenty  cities  in  the  remaining  nineteen  counties,  one  half  or  ten 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       77 

are  under  5000  population,  two  between  5000  and  6000,  three  be- 
tween 6000  and  7000,  but  the  remaining  five  range  from  9000 
to  38000. 

CAEE   OF  FEEBLE-MINDED 

There  is  little  of  special  significance  in  the  care  of  the  feeble- 
minded. One  large  state  "Institution  for  Feeble-Minded 
Children"  has  been  provided  and  is  under  the  efficient  super- 
vision of  the  State  Board  of  Control.  But  this  institution  can 
not  care  for  all  the  feeble-minded.  Many  are  given  food  and 
shelter  and  perhaps  some  care  in  the  various  county  homes  in 
the  State,  institutions  without  supervision,  and  whose  inmates 
come  and  go  pretty  much  as  they  please.  A  few,  but  very  few, 
are  reported  as  present  in  private  sanatoria  or  hospitals. 

SOURCES  OF  STATISTICAL  DATA 
Data  in  regard  to  the  feeble-minded  in  the  State  institution 
at  Glenwood  is  provided  in,  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State 
Board  of  Control.  As  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the  discus- 
sion of  the  data  on  county  home  population,  the  data  is  repre- 
sentative if  not  absolutely  accurate.  Additional  data  in  regard 
to  private  institutions  was  secured  through  the  sending  of  ques- 
tionnaires to  the  county  home  stewards. 

RECORDS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTIES 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  data  in  regard  to  the  feeble-minded  in 
county  homes  deals  with  inmates  present,  not  with  admissions, 
all  tables  in  which  they  are  included  have  necessarily  been  made 
out  on  that  basis,  and  rates  given  are  based  on  the  average  num- 
ber present  on  June  thirtieth  of  the  years  for  which  data  is 
available.  No  satisfactory  infonnation  in  regard  to  those  in 
county  homes  is  to  be  secured  for  the  period  before  1901  or  for 
the  biennium  1907-1908.  Table  XXIII  summarizes  for  us  the 
data  secured. 


78 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


TABLE  XXIII^ 


Comparative  Table,  Feeble-Minded  From  Counties  of  Iowa  in 
Institutions,  1901-1916 


No.  per  1000 

Rank  of  county 
in  per  cent  of  ur 

County 

population 

ban  population 

1. 

Mills 

1.45 

27 

2. 

Jones 

1.22 

40 

3. 

Davis 

1.20 

99 

4. 

Cass 

1.15 

28 

5. 

Crawford 

1.12 

65 

6. 

Lee 

1.11 

11 

7. 

Marshall 

1.10 

16 

8. 

Union 

1.10 

15 

9. 

Jackson 

1.09 

47 

10. 

Page 

1.04 

21 

11. 
12. 

Ringgold 
Madison 

1.04 
1.02 

80 
83 

13. 

Lucas 

1.01 

49 

14. 

Louisa 

.98 

57 

15. 

Jefferson 

.98 

63 

16. 

Harrison 

.97 

48 

17. 

Fremont 

.97 

89 

18. 

Keokuk 

.95 

45 

19. 

20. 

Wapello 
Des  Moines 

.93 
.93 

9 
6 

21. 

Decatur 

.92 

55 

22. 

Clarke 

.91 

75 

23. 

Van  Buren 

.88 

72 

24. 
25. 

Montgomery 
Jasper 

.88 
.87 

22 
53 

26. 

Adams 

.85 

96 

27. 

Adair 

.84 

88 

28. 

Greene 

.83 

64 

29. 

30. 

Taylor 
Woodbury 

.83 

.82 

59 
2 

31. 
32. 

Washington 
Mahaska 

.82 
.81 

50 
41 

33. 

Benton 

.81 

37 

34. 

Humboldt 

.80 

42 

35. 

Dallas 

.80 

25 

36. 

Cedar 

.79 

74 

37. 

Polk 

.77 

1 

38. 

Allamakee 

.72 

87 

39. 

Iowa 

.70 

94 

40.     Cerro  Gordo 


.69 


13 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       79 

Average 

77 
34 
3 
81 
10 

4 

7 

44 

70 

12 

38 
36 
20 
86 
76 

56 
67 
68 
23 
62 

39 

85 

43 

78 

8 

52 
18 
60 
19 
46 

31 
69 
29 
84 
5 

14 
82 
66 
90 
17 

51 
54 
35 
24 
33 

58 
92 
91 


State  of  Iowa 

.69 

41. 

Delaware 

.69 

42. 

Powesheik 

.68 

43. 

Scott 

.66 

44. 

Kossuth 

.65 

45. 

Muscatine 

.65 

46. 

Dubuque 

.64 

47. 

Linn 

.63 

48. 

Bremer 

.63 

49. 

Clayton 

.63 

50. 

Pottawattamie 

.62 

51. 

Wayne 

.62 

52. 

Calhoun 

.62 

53. 

Boone 

.62 

54. 

Grundy 

.62 

55. 

Ida 

.61 

56. 

Marion 

.60 

57. 

Buchanan 

.58 

58. 

Howard 

.58 

59. 

Johnson 

.57 

60. 

Dickinson 

.57 

61. 

Mitchell 

.57 

62. 

Hancock 

.56 

63. 

Fayette 

.56 

64. 

Monona 

.56 

65. 

Clinton 

.56 

66. 

Tama 

.55 

67. 

Floyd 

.55 

68. 

Sac 

.54 

69. 

Appanoose 

.53 

70. 

Henry 

.52 

71. 

Warren 

.52 

72. 

Guthrie 

.52 

73. 

Hardin 

.52 

74. 

Butler 

.51 

75. 

Black  Hawk 

.51 

76. 

Webster 

.49 

77. 

Osceola 

.49 

78. 

Buena  Vista 

.48 

79. 

Pocahontas 

.45 

80. 

Story 

.45 

81. 

Winnebago 

.45 

82. 

Sioux 

.45 

83. 

Hamilton 

.44 

84. 

Wrio^ht 

.43 

85. 

Carroll 

.42 

86. 

Palo  Alto 

.42 

87. 

Shelby 

.41 

88. 

Winneshiek 

.41 

89. 

Clay 

.40 

90. 

Monroe 

.39 

91. 

Plymouth 

.39 

92. 

Worth 

.38 

93. 

Audubon 

.36 

94. 

Franklin 

.34 

95. 

Cherokee 

.33 

96. 

0  'Brien 

.31 

97. 

Lyon 

.28 

98. 

Chickasaw 

.17 

99. 

Emmet 

.08 

80  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

79 

98 

61 
97 
95 
93 

30 

26 
71 
73 
32 

One  is  at  once  impressed  with  the  comparatively  large  pro- 
portion of  counties  with  a  rate  above  the  State  average,  forty 
as  compared  with  thirty-three  in  the  table  dealing  with  the 
tuberculous.  In  no  previous  table  has  so  large  a  number  come 
above  the  State  average,  though  that  on  county  home  inmates 
approached  it.  This  fact  would  indicate  a  lesser  degree  of  cor- 
relation between  rate  and  per  cent  of  urban  population.  The 
same  point  is  brought  out  by  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  forty 
counties  above  the  State  average,  and  of  the  lower  twenty 
counties.  Of  the  forty  we  find  only  fifteen  instead  of  the  nor- 
mal sixteen,  in  the  upper  forty  counties  in  per  cent  of  urban 
population.  Of  the  forty,  however,  twenty-one  instead  of  the 
normal  twenty  come  in  the  upper  half  of  the  counties  in  urban 
per  cent.  The  lower  twenty  counties  in  the  table  include  in 
their  number  six  from  the  lower  twenty  counties  in.  urban  per 
cent  and  thirteen  from  the  lower  half,  instead  of  the  normal 
four  and  ten  respectively.  Our  evidence  from  this  quarter  in 
regard  to  correlation  is  inconsistent  and  inconclusive. 

Forty  counties  have  rates  above  the  State  average  and  fifty- 
nine  below.  The  range  above  the  State  average  is  .76  as  com- 
pared with  .61  below,  but  with  the  elimination  of  the  two  ex- 
tremes the  range  above  is  only  .53  as  compared  with  .52  below. 
There  would  seem  here  to  be  some  evidence  of  correlation  of 
rate  with  population.  The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives  a 
coefficient  of  correlation  of  .076  with  a  probable  error  of  .043. 
There  may  be  true  correlation  but  the  evidence  is  not  con- 
clusive. 

Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  records  of  individual 
counties  we  find  that  the  people  of  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       81 

State  institution  have  evidently  learned  to  utilize  it,  since  Mills 
County,  in  wiiich  Glenwood  is  located,  has  the  highest  rate. 
Witiiin  the  first  ten  are  found  three  other  counties  located  com- 
paratively near  Glenwood,  Cass,  Union  and  Page.  Crawford 
too  is  fairly  near  and  has  direct  railway  connections  with  Coun- 
cil Bluffs,  quite  near  by.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  counties, 
witiiout  any  large  cities  should  show  such  a  record,  despite  the 
obscuring  influence  of  the  fact  that  feeble-minded  in  the  county 
home,  as  well  as  those  at  Glenwood,  are  included. 

The  table  shows  certain  other  pecularities.  Pottawattamie 
County,  though  containing  a  large  city.  Council  Bluffs,  and 
near  at  hand  has  a  very  low  record,  ranking  fiftieth,  paralleling 
the  record  of  this  comity  in  admission  to  tuberculosis  sanatoria. 
The  first  five  counties  in  the  table  contain  no  cities  above  5000 
in  population.  Lee  and  Marshall  counties,  containing  Keokuk 
and  Marshalltown  respectively,  rank  sixth  and  seventh,  but 
thereafter  no  county  with  a  city  over  5000  appears  until  we 
reach  Wapello  and  Des  Moines,  ranking  nineteenth  and  twen- 
tieth. Of  the  counties  containing  the  really  large  cities  of  the 
State,  "Woodbury  comes  thirtieth  and  the  others  are  scattered 
all  the  way  from  thirty-seventh  to  seventy-fifth.  ^lahaska 
ranks  thirty-second,  ]\Iouroe  and  Appanoose,  the  chief  mining 
counties,  ninetieth  and  sixty-ninth.  City  and  mining  camp  con- 
ditions seem  to  have  little  influence  on  the  record.  Use  of  Spear- 
man's  formula  gave  a  coefficient  of  only  .076,  with  a  probable 
error  of  .043  for  the  correlation  between  rank  in  feeble-minded 
in  institutions,  and  rank  in  urban  per  cent.  This  is  by  no  means 
conclusive  evidence  of  real  correlation.  In  fact  the  chief  item 
of  general  interest  in  the  table  is  the  suggestion  of  correlation 
between  the  number  of  inmates  in  institutions  and  proximity  or 
access  to  the  State  Institution  for  Feeble-lMinded  at  Glenwood. 

In  connection  with  this  point,  Table  XXIV,  giving  the  record 
of  the  twent}^  counties  with  the  highest  average  rate  for  inmates 
in  the  State  Institution  at  Glenwood  will  be  of  interest. 


82  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

TABLE  XXIV-^» 

Comparative  Table,   Inmates   of   State   Institution   for   Feeble-Minded 
Children  From  Twenty  Counties  With  Highest  Eates,  1901-1916 

No.  inmates  per 
County  1000  population 

1.  Mills  1.24 

2.  Cass  1.01 

3.  Union  .95 

4.  Harrison  .93 

5.  Page  .92 

6.  Crawford  .91 

7.  Marshall  .91 

8.  Montgomery  .84 

9.  Adams  .84 

10.  Madison  .82 

11.  Ringgold  .80 

12.  Des  Moines  .78 

13.  Woodbury  .78 

14.  Clarke  '    .78 

15.  Jones  .77 

16.  Humboldt  .77 

17.  Jackson  .75 

18.  Polk  .72 

19.  Fremont  .71 

20.  Dallas  .71 

GlenAvood  is  located  in  i\Iills  County  not  far  from  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  State.  Keeping  this  in  mind,  let  us  turn  our 
attention  to  the  portion  of  the  State,  lying  west  of  the  middle 
point  in  the  southern  boundarj^  and  south  of  the  middle  point 
in  the  western  boundary,  forming  roughly  the  south-west  quar- 
ter of  the  State,  and  containing  somewhat  less  than  one-fourth 
its  area.  Within  this  section  are  included  the  whole  of  nine- 
teen comities  and  a  large  portion  of  two  others.  Of  the  twenty- 
one  counties,  instead  of  a  normal  four  or  five,  we  find  thirteen 
within  the  number  of  the  twenty  counties  of  highest  rank  in 
rate  of  inmates  of  the  State  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded 
Children.  Of  the  eight  counties  not  included  five  are  on  the 
northern  or  eastern  border  of  the  section,  comparatively  remote 
from  Glenwood.  Of  the  four  counties  bordering  Mills,  three 
are  included  in  the  table,  and  the  fourth,  Pottawattamie,  has 
already  been  noted  as  having  a  somewhat  abnomially  low  rec- 
ord in  other  tables.     Yet  it  ranks  higher  in  this  table  than  in 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  bfeLlNQitJEl^TS' "  y  83', 

any  other  for  defectives.  There  is  certainly  clear  evidence  tiiat 
a  quite  disproportionate  share  of  the  inmates  of  the  State  Insti- 
tution are  drawn  from  the  quarter  of  the  State  in  which  it  is 
located. 

RECORD  OF  RURAL  AND  URBAN  DIVISIONS 
While  we  have  thus  far  found  little  evidence  of  any  correla- 
tion between  rate  of  inmates  in  institutions  for  the  feeble- 
minded and  urban  residence.  Table  XXV,  summarizing  the 
data  on  this  point,  so  far  as  inmates  of  the  State  Institution  at 
Glen  wood  are  concerned,  will  be  of  interest.  The  table  is  based 
on  admissions,  not  number  of  inmates,  as  the  nature  of  the  data 
available  necessitated. 

TABLE  XXYio 

Admissions  to  State  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children,  1909-1916 

Kural   or  urban  No.  per   1000 

division  population 

Country  .32 

Villages  and  towns  .84 

Towns   2000-4000  .70 

Towns  4000-8000  .68 

Cities  8000-25,000  .85 

Cities  25,000  and  over  .  .71 

The  chief  points  that  impress  us  from  this  table  are  the  usual 
low  record  of  the  open  country,  the  quite  high  record  for  vil- 
lages and  towns  under  2000,  almost  equalling  the  highest  urban 
rate,  and  the  lack  of  correlation  between  size  of  urban  centers 
and  the  rates.  This  table  bears  strong  witness  to  the  much 
greater  contrast  between  conditions  in  the  open  country  and 
villages,  than  between  those  in  villages  and  larger  urban  centers. 
We  are,  however,  struck  by  the  fact  that  llie  village  rate  is 
higher  than  that  for  most  classes  of  cities.  A  possible  partial 
explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  southwestern,  quarter  of 
the  State,  already  shown  to  furnish  an  abnormal  proportion  of 
the  inmates  of  the  institution  at  Glenwood,  contains  but  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  cities  of  the  State,  only  eight  of  the 
forty-one  over  4000  in  population. 

Table  XXV  is  unsatisfactory  in.  that  it  is  based  only  upon 


84  UNITEBSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

data  for  the  State  institution,  data  for  the  county  homes  not 
being  available.  An  effort  was  made  through  the  sending  of 
a  questionnaire  to  the  steward  of  each  county  home  to  secure 
comparable  data  in  regard  to  these  institutions.  Returns  were 
incomplete  and  often  unsatisfactory,  but  apparently  reliable 
returns  in  regard  to  the  feeble-minded  were  secured  from 
counties  containing  about  one-fourth  the  population  of  the 
State.  For  the  larger  urban  groups  information  was  secured 
from  an  insufficient  number  of  cities  for  the  rates  to  be  trust- 
worthy. For  the  total  population.,  the  open  country,  and  the 
urban  groups  of  smaller  size,  the  results  should  be  accurate. 
The  findings  are  summarized  in  Table  XXVI. 

TABLE  XXVI^^ 

Rural  aud  Urban  Comparison,  Feeble-Minrled  In  County  Homes, 
Certain  Counties  of  Iowa,  August,  1917 

Division  No.  per  1000 

considered  population 

Total  population  covered  .28 

Country  .30 

Villages  .28 

Towns  2000-4000  .22 

Town's  4000-8000  .38 

Cities  8000-25,000  .31 

Cities  25,000  and  over  .04 

The  chief  point  of  interest  in  this  table  is  the  high  rate  for 
the  open  country,  somewhat  higher  than  the  average  rate  for 
the  total  population  covered.  Rural  districts,  as  compared  with 
urban  centers,  care  for  a  larger  proportion  of  their  feeble- 
minded in  the  county  homes.  The  reason  for  this  is  not-  appar- 
ent. Possibly  the  rural  districts  are  less  well  informed  in  re- 
gard to  facilities  provided  at  the  State  institution,  and  more 
familiar  with  the  county  home,  located  as  it  is  on  a  farm  in  the 
open  country.  Possibly,  also,  this  may  indicate  a  greater  tend- 
ency for  rural  districts  to  neglect  the  feeble-minded,  until  they 
become  dependent  and  are  sent  to  the  county  home  as  paupers. 

The  rate  of  rural  admissions  to  Glen  wood  as  compared  with 
the  State  average,  1910-1916,  was  .32  as  contrasted  with  .59. 
For  inmates  in  county  homes  the  comparative  rates  for  the 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       85 

area  studied  are  .30  and  .28  respectively.  More  feeble-minded 
are  admitted  to  Glenwood  iu  each  bieunium  than  are  present  at 
any  one  time  in  all  the  county  homes.  Accordingly  the  rate  of 
the  country,  slightly  above  the  average  for  county  homes,  is  far 
from  counterbalancing  the  open  country's  comparatively  low 
record  in  admission  to  Glenwood.  So  far  as  inmates  in  insti- 
tutions are  concerned,  the  rate  for  the  open  country  is  very 
much  below  the  average,  and  still  farther  below  the  rate  for  any 
class  of  urban  centers. 

A  careful  study  of  feeble-mindedness  in.  New  Hampshire, 
however,  in  which  care  was  taken  to  locate  all  cases  outside 
institutions  as  well  as  inside,  gave  the  following  result:  "The 
relative  amount  of  feeble-mindedness  gradually  increases  from 
the  smallest  proportion  in  the  most  populous  county  in  the 
state,  to  the  largest  in.  the  tw^o  most  remote  and  thinly  popu- 
lated counties,  showing  clearly  the  extent  of  the  social  needs  of 
the  rural  districts.  "^^ 

RECORDS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CITIES 
Table  XXVII  gives  us  the  data  available  as  to  the  admissions 
from  the  cities  of  the  State  over  4000  in  population,  and  iu 
parallel  columns  the  rank  of  the  counties,  in  which  the  cities  are 
located,  in  average  rate  of  inmates  present  in  the  State  Insti- 
tution for  Feeble-Minded. 

TABLE  XXVII''-^ 

Comparative    Table,   Admissions   to   State    Institutiou    For    Feeble-Minded 
Children  From  Cities  of  Iowa,  1906,  1909-1916 


Rank  of 

County    iu  county  in 

No. 

per   1000 

Bank 

in 

which          average  no 

City 

population 

popu 

latioi 

11   located           inmates 

1. 

Creston 

2.31 

21 

Union                    3 

2. 

Newton 

1.95 

33 

Jasper                28 

:i. 

Atlantic 

1.75 

34 

Cass                      2 

4. 

Des  Moines 

1.62 

1 

Polk                    18 

5. 

CTiariton 

1.58 

41 

Decatur              32 

6. 

Glenwood 

1.48 

39 

Mills                     1 

7. 

Ottiiniwii 

1.41 

10 

Wapello             26 

8. 

8ioux  City 

1.34 

2 

Woodbury          13 

86 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


9. 

Boone 

1.26 

16 

Boone 

56 

10. 

Marion 

1.14 

35 

Linn 

48 

11. 

Mason  Oity 

1.07 

15 

Cerro   Gordo 

30 

12. 

Shenandoah 

1.00 

27 

Page 

5 

13. 

Council   Bluffs 

.99 

6 

Pottawattamie  33 

14. 

Burlington 

.99 

9 

Des  Moines 

12 

15. 

Waterloo 

.97 

7 

Black    Hawk 

89 

16. 

Le  Mars 

.96 

38 

Plymouth 

76 

17. 

Oskaloosa 

.95 

18 

Mahaska 

35 

18. 

Keokuk 

.93 

13 

Lee 

22 

19. 

Albia 

.91 

29 

Monroe 

84 

20. 

Cedar  Falls 

.89 

26 

Black  Hawk 

89 

21. 

Davenport 

.86 

3 

Scott 

40 

22. 

Marshalltown 

.82 

14 

Marshall 

7 

23. 

Grinnell 

.79 

25 

Poweshiek 

67 

24. 

Clarinda 

.78 

40 

Page 

5 

25. 

Ft.   Dodge 

.77 

12 

Webster 

64 

26. 

Webster  City 

.77 

24 

Hamilton 

72 

27. 

Clinton 

.74 

8 

Clinton 

50 

28. 

Ames 

.71 

37 

Story 

75 

29. 

Washington 

.68 

36 

Washington 

80 

State  of  Iowa 

.65 

Average 

30. 

Muscatine 

.62 

11 

Muscatine 

38 

31. 

Cedar  Eapids 

.61 

5 

Linn 

48 

32. 

Iowa  City 

.59 

17 

Johnson 

41 

33. 

Dubuque 

.55 

4 

Dubuque 

42 

34. 

Centerville 

.43 

20 

Appanoose 

63 

35. 

Bed  Oak 

.41 

31 

Montgomery 

8 

36. 

Fairfield 

.40 

28 

Jefferson 

95 

37. 

Ft.  Madison 

.22 

19 

Lee 

22 

38. 

Cherokee 

.00 

30 

Cherokee 

93 

39. 

Perry 

.00 

32 

Dallas 

20 

40. 

Charles  City 

.00 

23 

Floyd 

69 

41. 

Oelwein 

.00 

22 

Fayette 

92 

This  table  presents  some  evidence  parallel  to  that  already 
noted  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  proximity  to  GlenMood  upon 
the  use  made  of  the  State  institution.  Creston  ranking  first 
and  Atlantic  ranking  third  are  both  comparatively  near  it. 
Glenwood  itself  ranks  sixth.  Shenandoah  and  Council  Bluffs 
rank  twelfth  and  thirteenth.  Des  Moines  ranks  fourth  but, 
while  just  within  the  south-west  quarter  it  is  too  far  distant 
for  this  fact  to  be  of  much  significance.  There  are  but  two  other 
cities  of  over  4000  in  the  south-west  quarter,  Clarinda  and  Red 
Oak,   and  these  have   comparatively   low  rank.     Of  the   eight 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       87 

cities  in  the  entire  section,  six  come  in  the  upper  one-third.  The 
section  contains,  however,  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  cities 
of  the  State. 

Large  cities  do  not  rank  very  high  in  the  table,  perhaps  owing 
in  part  to  the  distance  of  most  of  them  from  Glenwood.  Council 
Bluffs,  however,  though  quite  near  at  hand  is  almost  a  third  of 
the  way  dovv-n  the  list.  Des  Moines  located  on  the  edge  of  the 
south-west  quarter  of  the  State,  ranks  fourth  and  Sioux  City  on 
the  western  border  ranks  eighth.  Ottumwa,  directly  east  of 
Glenwood  on  a  through  line  of  raib.vay  ranks  seventh.  Burling- 
ton and  Waterloo  have  somewhat  higher  records  than  in  most 
tables, — ranking  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  respectively.  The 
other  large  cities  are  well  scattered  through  the  remainder  of 
the  table,  Dubuque  ranking  lowest,  thirty-third.  Of  the  forty- 
one  cities,  twenty-nine  have  rates  above  the  State  average,  a  con- 
siderably larger  number  than  in  the  corresponding  table  on  ad- 
missions to  the  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium.  The  use  of 
Spearman's  formula  gives  no  evidence  of  correlation  between 
rate  and  size  of  city,  the  coefficient  resulting  being  .007  with  a 
probable  error  nearly  ten  times  as  large,  .067. 

Of  the  thirty-seven  counties  containing  the  forty-one  cities, 
seventeen  as  compared  with  a  normal  fourteen  come  within 
the  upper  thirty-seven  counties  in  rate  for  inmates  in  Glenwood. 
The  comparatively  high  rates  for  villages  and  towns  under  2000 
and  the  small  proportion  of  cities  in  the  south-west  part  of  the 
State  are  probably  the  factors  rendering  this  possible  in  spite 
of  the  low  rate  for  the  open  country. 

FEEBLE-MINDED  OUTSIDE  INSTITUTIONS 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  but  a  fraction  of  the  feeble- 
minded are  cared  for  in  the  State  institution.  "Reliable  statis- 
tics concerning  defectives  in  this  country  are  not  in  existence, 
but  we  may  probably  assume  that  there  is  one  feeble-minded  per- 
son to  every  five  hundred  of  the  general  population,  or  say,  four 
thousand  five  hundred  to  the  State  of  Iowa.  I  refei-  to  those  who 
are  generally  recognized  as  such."  Including  all  those  properly 
classed  as  feeble-minded,  something  over  six  thousand  has  been 
given  as  a  fair  estimate  of  the  total  number  in  lowa.^''    Yet  in 


88  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

June,  1916,  the  Iowa  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children 
contained  only  1,494  inmates,  while  only  265  persons  classified  as 
feeble-minded  were  to  be  found  in  the  county  homes,  a  total  of 
1,759  or  less  than.  40  per  cent  of  the  minimum  estimate. 

]More  accurate  data  as  to  total  number  of  feeble-minded  is 
given  in  a  study  of  feeble-mindedness  in  New  Hampshire.  "In 
the  whole  state  there  are  947  cases  of  feeble-mindedness  in  insti- 
tutions and  2019  recorded  cases  at  large.  In  the  fifty-two  towns 
studied  intensively  the  questionnaires  showed  350  cases  and  the 
personal  canvass  1,391.  Supposing  that  this  rate  of  actual  cases 
to  cases  reported  in  answer  to  the  questionnaire  prevails  in  the 
other  183  towns,  the  total  for  the  state  will  stand  at  4,115  or 
near  1  per  cent  of  the  population.  "<^  Less  than  one-fourth  the 
probable  number  of  cases  in.  New  Hampshire  are  in  institutions. 
If  this  holds  for  Iowa  the  total  number  would  be  very  near 
seven  thousand.  No  data  is  available  as  to  the  distribution  of 
the  large  but  unknoA\'n  number  outside  institutions. 

CARE  OF  THE  INSANE 

Provisions  for  the  care  of  the  insane  closely  parallels  that  for 
the  feeble-minded,  except  that  instead  of  a  single  institution,  we 
find  four,  well  located — one  in  each  quarter  of  the  State,  and 
that  the  State  Board  of  Control  since  1900  has  exerted  some 
supervisory  power  over  county  and  private  institutions.  Pre- 
vious to  1900,  as  ascertained  by  a  careful  investigation,  condi- 
tions in  private  institutions  were  good  in  many  respects;  tiie 
inmates  were  kindly  treated,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  any 
crael  treatment  or  abuses.  Tliere  was,  however,  little  or  no 
effort  toward  remedial  treatment,  most  of  inmates  being  of  the 
chronic  type  of  insanity,  and  insufficient  provision  was  made 
for  the  exercise,  amusement,  and  employment  of  patients. 

Very  different  conditions  existed  in  county  homes.  In  a  few, 
conditions  were  quite  good,  but  there  was  an  utter  lack  of  uni- 
formity. Of  trained  attendants  for  the  insane,  there  were  very 
few.  The  county  steward  at  best  was  a  good  farmer,  with  little 
understanding  of  his  insane  charges  and  little  time  to  give  to 
their  care.  Owing  to  lack  of  training,  the  influence  of  politics 
upon  the  appointment  of  stewards,  the  popular  demand  for 
economy  in  the  management  of  the  county  home,  and  lack  of 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       89 

public  interest,  serious  evils  existed  in  many  county  institu- 
tions. In  some  places  serious  moral  abuses  were  tolerated,  or 
promoted,  and  in  many  there  was  lack  of  proper  facilities  for 
cleanliness,  insuiHcient  or  no  provision  for  separation  of  the  in- 
sane from  otlier  classes  and  of  the  sexes  from  one  another,  and 
use  of  barbarous  methods  for  coercion,  and  restraint  of  the 
more  violent  insane,  though  only  incurable  and  harmless  pa- 
tients were  supposed  to  be  kept  in  county  institutions.^'^ 

Largely  as  a  result  of  tliis  investigation  an  act  of  the  General 
Assembly  in  1900  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  State 
Board  of  Control  "all  county  and  private  institutions  in  which 
were  kept  insane  peraons  and  required  that  each  institution  be 
inspected  twice  annually."  The  State  Board  of  Control  en- 
tered at  once  upon  the  task  of  carrying  out  its  new  responsibili- 
ties ;  inspections  were  made ;  and  regulations  were  drawn  up. 
According  to  the  1903  report  marked  improvement  in  condi- 
tions followed  as  most  officials  were  quite  ready  to  cooperate. 
The  report  states  that  "In  few  if  any,  of  the  county  and  pri- 
vate institutions  are  the  inmates  so  well  cared  for  as  they  would 
be  in  State  hospitals.  This  fact  should  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  construction  of  new  county  institutions  for  the  insane  and 
is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  closing  those  already, in  ex- 
istence."^'' 

Further  powers  were  finally  granted  by  law  in  1909,  but  the 
system  of  county  institutions  still  continues.  The  State  Board 
of  Control  report  for  1916  thus  summarizes  present  conditions: 
"The  state  inspector  of  county  homes  and  also  of  private  insti- 
tutions, has  reported  to  the  board  regularly  the  conditions  of  the 
various  places  where  the  insane  are  cared  for,  and  gives  flatter- 
ing reports  of  the  care  of  the  insane  at  private  institutions  and 
at  most  of  the  county  homes.  There  are  a  few  counties  which 
have  been  somewhat  dilatory  in  providing  the  best  way  of  tak- 
ing care  of  the  insane  but  these  instances  are  few,  and  the 
board  of  supervisors  of  the  various  counties  seem  to  desire  to 
work  in  harmony  with  the  prevailing  notion  of  the  people  and 
of  the  firmly  established  notion  of  the  Board  of  Control  of  State 
Institutions,  that  those  of  our  citizens  afflicted  with  mental  dis- 
eases should  receive  the  best  and  tenderest  care."''« 

The  different  counties,  however,  pursue  no  uniform  policy  in 


90  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

regard  to  care  of  the  insane.  Some  keep  all  their  insane  in 
State  institutions,  while  some  provide  for  a  large  proportion  in 
their  county  homes;  only  one,  Clayton,  has  a  hospital  under 
separate  management  from  the  county  home ;  some  support  a 
considerable  number  of  insane  in  private  institutions.  The 
private  hospitals  in  the  State  are  four  in  number.  Of  these 
one  in  recent  years  has  not  had  more  than  two  or  three  persons 
legally  adjudged  insane  under  its  care.  The  other  private  in- 
stitutions, located  in  Davenport,  Council  Bluffs,  and  Dubuque 
care  for  a  considerable  number  of  insane  most  of  whom  come 
from  Iowa. 

SOURCES  OF  STATISTICAL  MATERIAL 

As  in  earlier  phases  of  this  investigation  the  biennial  reports 
of  the  State  Board  of  Control  were  the  chief  source  of  data  in 
regard  to  inmates  of  both  State  and  county  institutions.  Cer- 
tain supplementary  data  was  secured  through  correspondence 
with  the  three  large  private  institutions,  county  auditors,  and 
county  home  stewards.  In  a  very  few  instances  county  finan- 
cial reports  proved  of  value.  No  attempt  was  made  to  secure 
data  in  regard  to  the  small  private  hospitals.  In  some  of  the 
biennial  reports  two  sets  of  figures  are  given  for  insane  in  county 
institutions,  one  based  on  steward's  reports,  one  on  the  results 
of  inspections  under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of  Control. 
The  latter  figures  are  those  used  by  the  reports  in  the  compar- 
ative tables  for  successive  years  and  appear  the  more  accurate. 
These  figures  have  been  utilized  in  all  cases  \\iiere  the  two  sets 
are  available.  They  do  not  include  in  their  totals  the  inmates 
of  county  homes,  ''held  as  insane  but  not  so  adjudged"  and 
these  have  accordingly  not  been  included  in  any  phase  of  this 
study. 

Whether  or  not  the  tuberculous  and  feeble-minded  are  to  be 
cared  for  in  an  institution  is  largely  a  matter  of  choice  rather 
than  of  necessity,  and  practice  in  this  regard  varies  widely 
according  to  the  degree  of  intelligence  and  social  outlook  of  the 
communities  concerned.  This  is  much  less  true  of  the  insane. 
The  latter  can  not  be  left  to  Iheir  own  devices  since  to  leave 
them  would  in  many  cases  mean  danger  to  the  lives  and  prop- 
erty of  others.     Accordingly  we  are  safe  in  assuming  that  the 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS      91 

records  in  regard  to  number  of  insane  in  institutions  throw 
some  real  light  on  the  seriousness  of  the  problem  of  insanity  in 
the  several  communities. 

RECORDS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTIES 
Practically  complete  data  in  regard  to  the  inmates  of  State, 
county,  and  private  institutions  from  each  county  of  the  State 
was  secured.     This  is  summarized  in  Table  XXVIII. 

TABLE  XVIII^s 


Comparative  Table,  Inmates  in  Hospitals  For  The  Insane  From 
Counties  of  Iowa,  1901-1916 


Eank  of  county 

No.  per  1000 

in  per  cent  of 

County 

population 

urban  population 

1. 

Lee 

3.56 

11 

2. 

Scott 

3.47 

3 

.3. 

Jefferson 

3.24 

63 

4. 

Henry 

3.21 

46 

5. 

Des  Moines 

3.06 

6 

6. 

Van  Buren 

3.21 

46 

7. 

Jones 

3.06 

6 

8. 

Clinton 

3.05 

72 

9. 

Winneshiek 

3.00 

40 

10. 

Montgomery 

2.98 

8 

11. 

Clayton 

2.87 

70 

12. 

Johnson 

2.76 

23 

13. 

Mitchell 

2.67 

39 

14. 

Worth 

2.63 

97 

15. 

Wapello 

2.62 

9 

16. 

Boone 

2.59 

20 

17. 

Allamakee 

2.56 

87 

18. 

Iowa 

2.56 

94 

19. 

Lucas 

2.54 

49 

20. 

Benton 

2.53 

37 

21. 

Howard 

2.51 

68 

22. 

Marshall 

2.50 

16 

23. 

Webster 

2.48 

14 

24. 

Dubuque 

2.46 

4 

25. 

Buena  Vista 

2.40 

66 

26. 

Page 

2.39 

21 

27. 

Madison 

2.34 

83 

28. 

Marion 

2.33 

56 

29. 

Ida 

2.32 

76 

30. 

Hancock 

2.32 

85 

92  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


31. 

Hardin 

2.29 

32. 

Union 

2.28 

33. 

Davis 

2.28 

34. 

Decatur 

2.28 

35. 

Dallas 

2.27 

36. 

Mahaska 

2.27 

37. 

Chickasaw 

2.26 

38. 
39. 

Washington 
Bremer 

2.26 
2.25 

State  of  Iowa 

S.23 

40. 

Shelby 

2.21 

41. 

Louisa 

2.20 

42. 

Delaware 

2.20 

43. 

Poweshiek 

2.20 

44. 

Buchanan 

2.19 

45. 

Polk 

2.18 

46. 

Jackson 

2.17 

47. 

48. 

Floyd 
Humboldt 

2.16 
2.13 

49. 

Muscatine 

2.11 

50. 

Linn 

2.08 

51. 

Tama 

2.05 

52. 

Calhoun 

2.03 

53. 

Warren 

2.02 

54. 

Mills 

2.02 

55. 

Adams 

2.01 

56. 

Cedar 

1.99 

57. 

Clarke 

1.97 

58. 

Fremont 

1.97 

59. 
60. 

Winnebago 

Fayette 

1.96 
1.95 

61. 
62. 

Plymouth 
Harrison 

1.91 
1.90 

63. 

Cass 

1.89 

64. 
65. 

Clay 
Crawford 

1.87 
1.86 

66. 

Cerro    Gordo 

L86 

67. 
68. 
69. 

Jasper 

Story 

Pottawattamie 

1.85 
1.83 
1.80 

70. 

Keokuk 

1.79 

71. 

Audubon 

1.79 

72. 

Hamilton 

L78 

73. 

Guthrie 

1.78 

74. 

Pocahontas 

1.76 

75. 

Sac 

1.74 

76. 

Green 

1.74 

77. 

Adair 

1.74 

78. 

Monona 

1.73 

29 
15 
99 
55 
25 

41 
73 
50 
44 

Average 

92 
57 
77 
34 
67 
1 

47 
18 
42 
10 

7 

52 
36 
31 
27 
96 

74 
75 
89 
51 
43 

61 
48 
28 
79 
65 

13 
53 
17 
12 
45 

95 
35 
69 
90 
60 

64 

88 

78 


79. 
80. 

Woodbury 
Cherokee 

1.71 
1.70 

81. 
82. 

Wayne 
Osceola 

1.63 
1.62 

83. 
84. 

Einggold 
Black  Hawk 

1.61 
1.60 

85. 

Carroll 

1.57 

86. 

87. 

Taylor 
0  'Brien 

1.52 
1.52 

88. 

Monroe 

1.49 

89. 

Emmet 

1.49 

90. 

Franklin 

1.48 

91. 
92. 

Grundy 
Palo  Alto 

1.45 
1.44 

93. 
94. 

Wright 
Butler 

1.44 
1.43 

95. 

Lyon 

1.38 

96. 
97. 

Appanoose 
Kossuth 

1.38 
1.38 

98. 

Sioux 

1.31 

99. 

Dickinson 

1.20 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       93 

2 
30 

38 
82 
80 
5 
33 

59 
26 
98 
32 
93 

86 
58 
24 

84 
71 

19 
81 
54 
62 

In  this  table  we  find  thirty-nine  counties  having  a  rate  above 
the  State  average,  a  number  exceeded  only  in  the  table  dealing 
with  the  feeble-minded.  This  would  indicate  the  absence  of  a 
high  degree  of  correlation  between  the  rate  and  the  per  cent  of 
urban  population  in  the  counties.  The  range  above  the  State 
average  is  slightly  greater  than  that  below,  1.33  as  compared 
with  1.03,  but  this  is  a  comparatively  slight  difference  and  dis- 
appears when  a  small  number  of  counties  are  eliminated.  With 
the  seven  counties  at  either  extreme  eliminated,  the  I'auge  above 
is  reduced  to  .77  and  that  below  to  only  .79.  There  must  then 
be  some  correlation. 

Special  examination  of  the  thirty-nine  counties  above  the 
State  average  and  the  twenty  counties  at  the  other  end  of  the 
table  gives  the  following  results.  The  upper  thirty-nine  counties 
contain  within  their  number  seventeen  of  the  upper  thirty-nine 
counties  in  rank  in  per  cent  of  urban  population,  and  twenty- 
two  from  the  upper  half,  instead  of  the  normal  sixteen  and 
twenty.  At  the  other  end  of  the  table,  we  find  in  the  lower 
twenty,  seven  from  the  lower  twenty  in  urban  per  cent  and 
twelve  from  the  lower  half  instead  of  the  normal  four  and  ten. 
The  divergence  from  the  normal  is  not  large  but  in  each  in- 


94  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

stance  it  is  in  the  direction  of  positive  correlation,  thus  reducing 
the  likelihood  of  its  being  mere  chance  variation.  The  use  of 
Spearman's  formula  gives  .132  as  the  coefficient  of  correlation 
with  .043  as  the  probable  error.  The  evidence  points  to  the 
existence  of  actual  correlation  between  rank  in  rate  and  rank 
in  per  cent  of  urban  population  though  not  correlation  of  a 
high  degree. 

Considering  now  the  records  of  individual  counties,  we  are 
not  especially  surprised  to  find  Lee  and  Scott  ranking  first  and 
second,  as  both  have  cities  of  importance  and  a  large  degree  of 
concentration  of  population  in  urban  centers.  Des  Moines 
County,  ranking  fifth,  contains  a  large  city.  In  practically 
every  table  dealing  with  criminality  it  had  a  low  rate,  but  in 
dependence  and  care  of  defectives  it  ranked  much  nearer  the 
top.  The  only  explanation  apparent  for  the  rank  of  Jefferson, 
Henry  and  Van  Buren  counties,  third,  fourth  and  sixth  in 
order,  is  their  proximity  to  the  State  hospital  at  Mount  Pleas- 
ant in  Henry  County.  There  is  no  obvious  explanation  for  the 
record  of  Jones  and  Winneshiek,  ranking  seventh  and  ninth. 
Clinton,  eighth,  has  a  large  city.  Montgomery,  tenth,  has  fairly 
high  rank  in,  urban  per  cent  and  is  near  the  State  hospital  at 
Clarinda.  Clayton  has  a  fairly  large  county  hospital  located 
in  a  different  place  from  the  county  home,  and  may  possibly 
care  more  completely  for  its  insane  in  institutions  than  does 
the  average  county.  Wapello  County,  with  a  bad  record  in  the 
tables  on  criminality  and  dependence,  ranks  fifteenth.  Du- 
buque County  ranks  somewhat  higher  than  usual,  twenty- 
fourth.  Mahaska  County  ranks  thirty-sixth.  Many  of  the 
counties  containing  large  cities  rank  very  low, — Polk  forty-fifth, 
Linn  fiftieth,  Pottawattamie  sixty-ninth,  Woodbury  seventy- 
ninth  and  Black  Hawk  eighty-fourth.  It  would  seem  large 
cities  do  not  have  abnormally  high  rates.  Neither  do  mining 
counties ;  Monroe  and  Appanoose  rank  eighty -eighth  and  ninety- 
sixth  respectively. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PROXIMITY  TO  STATE  INSTITUTIONS 

Attention  has  already  been  called,  in  the  discussion  of  the 

tuberculous  and  the  feeble-minded,  to  the  influence  of  proximity 

to   institutions  upon   rates  of  admission  to   those   institutions.„ 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       95 

Hospitals  for  the  insane  are  fairly  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  State.  Yet  proximity  seems  to  have  at  least  a  slight  in- 
fluence. Table  XXIX  gives  the  rank  and  rates  of  the  twenty- 
five  counties  of  highest  rates  of  inmates  in  State  hospitals  for 
the  insane. 

TABLE  XXIX^o 

Comparative  Table,  Inmates  of  State  Hospitals  for  Insaue  From  25  Iowa 
Counties   With  Highest  Rates,   1901-1916 

No.  per  1000 
County  population 

1.  Lee  2.83 

2.  Mitchell  2.61 

3.  Jones  2.58 

4.  Henry  2.57 

5.  Worth  2.51 

6.  Howard  2.50 

7.  Page  2.38 

8.  Montgomery  2.37 

9.  Buena  Vista  2,34 

10.  Clinton  2.33 

11.  Webster  2.32 

12.  Ida  2.32 

13.  Iowa  2.32 

14.  Madison  2.30 

15.  Hardin  2.25 

16.  Benton  2.21 

17.  Shelby  2.21 

18.  Davis  2.17 

19.  Union  2.14 

20.  Humboldt  2.13 

21.  Buchanan  2.13 

22.  Floyd  2.09 

23.  Calhoun  2.03 

24.  Adams  2.01 

25.  Delaware  2.00 

Within  this  table  we  find  three  out  of  the  four  counties  contain- 
ing State  hospitals,  instead  of  the  normal  one.  Two  of  these 
counties  rank  quite  high.  The  fourth  county,  Cherokee,  is  forty- 
eighth  out  of  ninety-nine  counties  in  rank  in.  rate  of  inmates  in 
State  hospitals.  All  four  occur  within  the  upper  lialf  in  rank 
in  rate  of  inmates.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
thirty  counties  either  containing  a  State  hospital  or  touching  a 


96  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

county  which  contains  one.  Of  the  thirty  counties  located  in 
closest  proximity  to  State  hospitals,  seven,  instead  of  the  normal 
six  come  within  the  first  twenty  in  Table  XXIX,  ten,  instead  of 
a  normal  seven  or  eight,  within  the  first  twenty-five.  Proxim- 
ity to  a  State  hospital  would  seem  to  have  some  influence  upon 
the  use  made  of  the  institution,  but  the  correlation  is  by  no 
means  so  close  as  in  the  case  of  institutions  for  the  tuberculous 
and  feeble-minded.  Counties  containing  State  insane  hospitals 
rank  high,  but  the  influence  beyond  their  borders  is  not  marked. 
Paralleling  this  record  for  Iowa,  we  quote  the  following  from 
the  report  of  the  Michigan  commission  to  investigate  mental  de- 
fectiveness. "It  is  important  to  note  tliat  all  counties  in  which 
are  located  the  larger  State  Hospitals  for  the  Insane  have  high 
rates.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  conditions  which 
may  be  productive  of  insanity  are  more  prevalent  in  these 
counties  than  in  others.  These  factors  are  certainly  less  than  in 
counties  of  largest  population.  It  seems  probable  that  in  these 
counties  a  smaller  number  of  insane  avoid  commitment  to  insti- 
tutions than  in  other  counties.  This  may  be  due  to  familiarity 
with  the  administration  and  benefits  of  institutional  treatment, 
and  a  more  wide-spread  interest  in  the  care  of  the  insane,  re- 
sulting from  the  proximity  of  a  State  Hospital,  and  conse- 
quently less  hesitation  in  placing  those  who  are  insane  under 
treatment. '  '^^ 

COMPARISON,  RECORDS  OF  MEN  AND  OF  WOMEN 

In  some  statements  recently  made  the  theory  has  been  put 
forth  tliat  among  the  insane  are  an  abnormal  proportion  of  wo- 
men from  the  rural  districts,  "One  statement  appearing  in  a 
text  on  agricultural  education  quotes  Georgia  Club  studies  to 
the  effect  that  '80  to  90  per  cent  of  insane  asylum  inmates  are 
wives  and  daughters  of  farmers.'  The  state  commissioner  of 
common  schools  of  Ohio  recently  made  the  statement  in  a  pub- 
lic address  that  in  one  of  the  Ohio  State  Hospitals  for  the  in- 
sane 67  per  cent  of  the  women  were  from  the  country.  The  lat- 
ter statement  is  probably  well  founded  and  points  to  a  real 
problem  in  country  life."  Another  author  states,  as  a  well 
known  fact,  that  "in  the  United  States  farmer's  wives  are  much 
more  likelv  to  become  insane  than  are  farmers.^- 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       97 

In  view  of  the  existence  of  this  opinion,  an  analysis  has  been 
made  of  the  comparative  records  of  men  and  women.  Tables 
XXX  and  XXXI  summarize  results  for  the  counties  of  the 
State. 

TABLE  XXX--^ 


Comparative  Tabie,  Female  Inmates  in  Hospitals  for  the  Insane 
From  Counties  of  Iowa,  1901-1916 


Bank   of  county 

No.  per  1000 

in  per  cent  of 

County 

population 

urban   population 

1. 

Lee 

1.87 

11 

2. 

Scott 

1.78 

3 

3, 

Jefferson 

1.73 

63 

4. 

Van   Buren 

1.62 

72 

5. 

Henry 

1.58 

46 

6. 

Des  Moines 

1.55 

6 

7. 

Montgomery 

1.55 

22 

8. 

Clinton 

1.48 

8 

9. 

Clayton 

1.40 

70 

10. 

Hardin 

1.39 

29 

11. 

Wapello 

1.38 

9 

12. 

Decatur 

1.32 

55 

13. 

Mitchell 

1.31 

39 

14. 

Ida 

1.29 

76 

15. 

"Winneshiek 

1.29 

91 

16. 

Davis 

1.29 

99 

17. 

Dubuque 

1.27 

4 

18. 

Madison 

1.26 

83 

19. 

Jones 

1.24 

40 

20. 

Johnson 

1.19 

23 

21. 

Lucas 

1.19 

49 

22. 

Union 

1.16 

15 

23. 

Marshall 

1.16 

16 

24. 

Allamakee 

1.16 

87 

25. 

Mahaska 

1.14 

41 

26. 

Boone 

1.14 

20 

27. 

Buena  Vista 

1.14 

66 

28. 

Muscatine 

1.14 

10 

29. 

Linn 

1.13 

7 

30. 

Benton 

1.12 

37 

31. 

Webster 

1.11 

14 

32. 

Polk 

1.10 

1 

33. 

Dallas 

1.10 

25 

34. 

Bremer 

1.08 

44 

98  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


State  of  Iowa 

1.06 

35. 

Page 

1.05 

36. 

Warren 

1.05 

37. 

Tama 

1.02 

38. 

Washington 

1.02 

39. 

Louisa 

1.02 

40. 

Cedar 

1.01 

41. 

Clarke 

1.01 

42. 

Clay 

1.01 

43. 

Delaware 

1.00 

44. 

Iowa 

1.00 

45. 

Poweshiek 

.99 

46. 

Hmnbodlt 

.99 

47. 

Chickasaw 

.98 

48. 

Howard 

.98 

49. 

Greene 

.96 

50. 

Jasper 

.95 

51, 

Marion 

.95 

52. 

Emmet 

.94 

53. 

Floyd 

.94 

54. 

Audubon 

.94 

55. 

Fayette 

.94 

56. 

Buchanan 

.93 

57. 

Jackson 

.91 

58. 

Winnebago 

.91 

59. 

Cass 

.90 

60. 

Adams 

.89 

61. 

Plymouth 

.88 

62. 

Carroll 

.88 

63. 

Worth 

.85 

64. 

Osceola 

.85 

65. 

Hancock 

.83 

66. 

Story 

.82 

67. 

Harrison 

.81 

68. 

Woodbury 

.81 

69. 

Ringgold 

.80 

70. 

Shelby 

.80 

71. 

Cerro  Gordo 

.80 

72. 

Pottawattamie 

.80 

73. 

Calhoun 

.79 

74. 

Fremont 

.79 

75. 

Mills 

.78 

76. 

Butler 

.76 

77. 

Sac 

.76 

78. 

Taylor 

.75 

79. 

Black  Hawk 

.75 

80. 

0  'Brien 

.74 

81. 

Cherokee 

.73 

82. 

Adair 

.73 

Average 

21 

31 
52 
50 
57 

74 

75 

79 
77 
94 
34 

42 
73 
68 
64 
53 

56 
32 
18 
95 
43 

67 
47 
51 
28 
96 

61 
33 
97 
82 
85 

17 

48 

2 

80 
92 

13 
12 
36 
89 
27 

84 
60 
59 
5 
26 

30 
88 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS       99 


83.  Hamilton 

84.  Guthrie 

85.  Keokuli 

86.  Wayne 

87.  Crawford 

88.  Wright 

89.  Monroe 

90.  Palo  Alto 

91.  Monona 

92.  Sioux 

93.  Pocahontas 

94.  Lyon 

95.  Grundy 

96.  Kossuth 

97.  Appanoose 

98.  Franklin 

99.  Dickinson 


.73 
.72 
.70 

.67 
.67 
.64 
.64 
.63 

.62 
.59 
.59 
.59 
.56 

.52 
.51 

.44 
.37 


35 
69 

45 

38 
65 
24 
98 
58 

78 
54 
90 
71 

86 

81 
19 
93 
62 


TABLE  XXXI^^ 


Comparative  Table,  Male  Inmates  in  Hospitals  for  the  Insane,  From 
Counties  of  Iowa,  1901-1916 


Eank  of  county 

No.  inmates  per 

in  per 

cent  of 

County 

1000  population 

urban 

population 

1. 

Worth 

1.77 

97 

2. 

Jones 

1.76 

40 

3. 

Winneshiek 

1.69 

91 

4. 

Scott 

1.69 

3 

5. 

Lee 

1.68 

11 

6. 

Henry 

1.63 

46 

7. 

Johnson 

1.57 

23 

8. 

Iowa 

1.56 

94 

9. 

Howard 

1.53 

68 

10. 

Des  Moines 

1.51 

6 

11. 

Jefferson 

1.51 

63 

12. 

Clinton 

1.50 

8 

13. 

Hancock 

1.49 

85 

14. 

Clayton 

1.47 

70 

15. 

Boone 

1.45 

20 

16. 

Van  Buren 

1.43 

72 

17. 

Montgomery 

1.41 

22 

18. 

Shelby 

1.40 

92 

19. 

Benton 

1.40 

37 

20. 

Allamakee 

1.40 

87 

21. 

Marion 

1.38 

56 

22. 

Webster 

1.36 

14 

23. 

Mitchell 

1.36 

39 

100 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


24.     Lucas 

1.35 

25.     Page 

1.35 

26,     Marshall 

1.34 

27.     Chickasaw 

1.28 

28.     Buena  Vista 

1.26 

29.     Buchanan 

1.26 

30.     Jackson 

1.26 

31.     Washington 

1.24 

32.     Wapello 

1.24 

33.     Calhoun 

1.24 

34.     Mills 

1.23 

35.     Floyd 

1.22 

36.     Poweshiek 

1.21 

37.     Delaware 

1.20 

38.     Dubuque 

1.20 

39.     Crawford 

1.19 

40.     Louisa 

1.19 

41.     Fremont 

1.18 

42.     Dallas 

1.17 

43.     Pocahontas 

1.17 

44.     Bremer 

1.17 

State  of  loiva 

1.17 

45.     Humboldt 

1.15 

46.     Mahaska 

1.13 

47.     Adams 

1.12 

48.     Union 

1.12 

49.     Monona 

1.11 

50.     Keokuk 

1.08 

51.     Harrison 

1.08 

52.     Madison 

1.08 

53.     Polk 

1.07 

54.     Guthrie 

1.06 

55.     Cerro  Gordo 

1.06 

56.     Hamilton 

1.06 

57.     Winnebago 

1.05 

58.     Franklin" 

1.05 

59.     Plymouth 

1.03 

60.     Tama 

1.03 

61.     Ida 

1.03 

62.     Fayette 

1.02 

63.     Adair 

1.01 

64.     Story 

1.01 

65.     Pottawattamie 

1.00 

66.     Davis 

1.00 

67.     Cass 

.99 

68.     Sac 

.99 

69.     Warren 

.99 

70.     Cedar 

.98 

49 
21 

16 
73 
66 
67 
47 

50 

9 

36 

27 
18 

34 
77 
4 
65 
57 

89 
25 
90 

44 

Average 
42 

41 

96 
15 

78 
45 

48 
83 
1 
69 
13 

35 
51 
93 
61 
52 

76 
43 
88 
17 
12 

99 

28 
60 
31 

74 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     101 


71. 

Muscatine 

.97 

72. 

Cherokee 

.97 

73. 

Wayne 

.96 

74. 

Clarke 

.96 

75. 

Decatur 

.96 

76. 

Linn 

.95 

77. 

Green 

.94 

78. 

Hardin 

.91 

79. 

Woodbury 

.90 

80. 

Jasper 

.89 

81. 

Grundy 

.88 

82. 

Appanoose 

.87 

83. 

Clay 

.86 

84. 

Kossuth 

.86 

85. 

Black   Hawk 

.85 

86. 

Monroe 

.85 

87. 

Audubon 

.85 

88. 

Dickinson 

.83 

89. 

Palo  Alto 

.81 

90. 

Ringgold 

.81 

91. 

Lyon 

.79 

92. 

Wright 

.79 

93. 

0  'Brien 

.78 

94. 

Osceola 

.77 

95. 

Taylor 

.77 

96. 

Sioux 

.72 

97. 

Carroll 

.69 

98. 

Butler 

.66 

99. 

Emmet 

.55 

10 
30 
38 
75 
55 

7 
64 
29 

2 

53 

86 
19 
79 
81 


98 
95 
62 
58 
80 

71 
24 
26 
82 
59 

54 
33 
84 
32 


In  a  comparison  of  these  tables  we  note,  first  of  all,  that  in 
the  table  for  women,  only  thirty-four  counties  have  records  above 
the  State  average  as  compared  with  forty-four  in  the  table  for 
men.  The  range  above  and  below  for  women  is  .81  and  .69  re- 
spectively, for  men  .60  and  .62.  This  would  lessen  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  location  of  the  State  averages,  as  evidence  of  high- 
er degree  of  correlation  between  women's  rates  and  concentra- 
tion of  population,  as  compared  with  the  rates  for  men,  but 
would  not  entirely  offset  it.  There  seems  greater  range  of  var- 
iation in  the  rates  for  women,  the  highest  being  .10  higher  than 
the  highest  for  men,  and  the  lowest  .18  lower  tlian  the  lowest  for 
men. 

Of  considerable  interest  are  the  comparative  records  of  indi- 
vidual counties.  In  the  table  for  women,  Lee  and  Scott,  two 
counties,   largely   urban   in   character,   have  the   hig'iest    i-ates, 


102  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

but  in  the  table  for  men  these  are  surpassed  by  Worth,  Jones, 
and  Winneshiek  counties.  Of  these  Jones  has  not  very  high 
rank  in  urban  per  cent  and  the  others  very  low  rank.  Of  the 
counties  containing  cities  of  importance  Des  Moines  ranks  sixth 
in  the  table  for  women,  tenth  in  that  for  men.  Clinton  ranks 
eighth  in  that  for  women,  twelfth  in  that  for  men.  WapeUo 
drops  from  eleventh  to  thirty-second,  and  Dubuque  from  sev- 
enteenth to  thirty-eighth;  ^Muscatine,  Linn  and  Polk  counties 
likewise  drop  from  twenty-eighth,  twenty-ninth  and  thirty-sec- 
ond in  the  table  for  women  to  seventy-first,  seventy-sixth  and 
fifty-third  in  that  for  men.  Woodbury  and  Black  Hawk  change 
from  sixty-eighth  and  seventy-ninth  in  the  table  for  women  to 
seventy-ninth  and  eighty-fifth  in  the  table  for  men.  On  the 
other  hand  Webster  and  Pottawattamie  counties  rise  from 
thirty -first  and  seventy-second  in  the  table  for  women  to  twenty- 
second  and  sixty-fifth  in  the  table  for  men.  Of  the  thirteen 
counties  containing  the  thirteen  largest  cities  in  the  State, 
eleven  have  a  higher  rank  in  the  table  for  women  than  in  the 
table  for  men.  The  evidence  certainly  indicates  that  the  com- 
paratively high  rates  for  women  are  in  the  urban  rather  than 
the  rural  communities. 

Use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives  similar  results.  The  coef- 
ficient of  correlation,  between  rank  in  rate  of  inmates  in  insane 
hospitals  and  rank  in  urban  per  cent  is  .173  for  the  table  for 
women,  .074  for  the  table  for  men,  with  the  same  probable  error 
of  .043. 

RECORD  OF  RURAL  AND  URBAN  DIVISIONS 
In  the  discussion  of  this  question  of  whether  or  not  a  dispro- 
portionate number  of  women  in  the  rural  districts  become  in- 
sane, Table  XXXII  will  be  of  interest.  Because  of  the  character 
of  data  available  this  is  based  upon  admissions,  not  upon  num- 
ber of  inmates,  and  includes  only  those  admitted  to  State  insti- 
tutions. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     103 
TABLE  XXXII54 
Rural  and  Urban  Admissions  to  State  Hospitals  for  Insane,  1909-1916 


Division 

considered 

No. 

per  1000  population 

Males 

Females 

Total 

State  as  whole 

2.00 

1.44 

3.44 

Country 

1.24 

.61 

1.85 

Villages  and  towns 

3.20 

2.69 

5.89 

Towns   2000-4000 

2.81 

2,48 

5.29 

Towns    4000-8000 

2.30 

1.86 

4.16 

Cities    8000-25,000 

2.86 

2.10 

4.96 

Cities  25,000  and  over 

2.29 

1.85 

4.14 

Considering  first  the  totals  for  different  rural  and  urban 
divisions,  we  find  that  the  total  rate  for  the  open  country  is  con- 
siderably less  than  half  that  for  any  other  division  and  not 
very  much  above  half  the  State  average.  Quite  astonishing, 
howfver,  is-  the  rate  of  villages  and  towns  under  2000,  consid- 
erably higher  than  that  for  any  other  division  considered,  and 
in  addition  very  near  in  rate  we  find  the  class  of  towns  next 
larger  in  size,  those  from  2000  to  4000.  Rates  for  the  larger 
cities  are  lower,  though  not  decreasing  regularly  with  the  in- 
crease in  population.  All  urban  centers  have  much  higher 
rates  than  does  the  open  country,  but  there  is  no  great  degree 
of  correlation,  either  direct  or  inverse,  between  rate  and  size  of 
the  urban  center.  All  urban  divisions  likewise  have  rates  con- 
siderably above  the  State  average. 

Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  rates  for  men  and  wo- 
men we  find  that  those  for  each  rise  and  fall  with  the  changes 
in  division  considered,  in  a  way  paralleling  the  fluctuations  in 
total  rate  already  noted.  Contrasts,  however,  are  noticeable. 
The  rate  for  men  is  always  considerably^  higher  than  that  for 
women.  According  to  the  statements  quoted  earlier  in  the 
section,  though  not  according  to  tlie  records  found  for  Iowa,  we 
would  expect  this  contrast  to  be  least  for  the  open  country,  if 
apparent  there  at  all.  Instead  we  find  it  greatest  here.  Not 
only  is  the  rate  of  insanity  among  women  lower  in  the  open 
country  than  elsewhere,  but  it  is  much  lower  there  tlian  else- 
where in  comparison  with  tlie  rate  for  men  and  the  total  rate. 
For  the  open  country  the  rate  for  women  is  less  than  half  tliat 


104  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

for  men.  For  the  State  as  a  whole  it  is  almost  three-fourths, 
while  for  all  urban  divisions  it  is  higher  still,  the  ratio  being 
least  for  cities  8000-25000. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  table  considers  admissions 
to  State  institutions  only  and  would  have  been  altered  if  data 
for  private  and  county  institutions  could  have  been  included  in 
it.  During  the  period  studied  the  numbers  of  men,  and  of 
women  included  among  the  insane  in  county  homes  have  been 
practically  equal,  the  exact  average  for  men  being  469.6  and 
that  for  women  468.7,  and  as  will  be  shown  later,  a  somewhat 
larger  proportion  of  these  come  from  the  open  country  than  is 
true  of  inmates  of  the  State  hospitals.  The  State  institutions, 
however,  have  contained  over  four-tifths  of  the  insane  in  public 
institutions.  About  one  and  a  half  times  as  many  women  as 
men  are  cared  for  in  the  private  institutions.  These,  however,  are 
located  in  Davenport,  Council  Bluffs,  and  Dubuque,  and  draw 
a  very  high  per  cent  of  their  population,  considerably  more  than 
Avhat  comes  from  this  State  from  the  three  counties,  Scott,  Pot- 
tawattamie and  Dubuque.  As  has  already  been  noted  two  of 
the  three  rank  higher  in  the  table  of  county  rates  for  insanity 
among  women,  than  in  the  corresponding  table  for  men.  Com- 
plete data  for  county  and  private  institutions  would  no  doubt 
tend  to  counterbalance  the  very  low  rate  for  women,  in  the 
open  country,  but  would  be  far  from  sufficient  to  fully  offset 
it. 

Because  of  interest  in  a  comparison  of  rural  and  urban  rates 
of  insanity,  questionnaires  were  sent  to  the  county  home  stew- 
ards in  an  effort  to  get  accurate  knowledge  of  the  proportion  of 
county  home  inmates  of  different  classes  coming  from  the  open 
country  and  from  urban  centers  as  classified  according  to  pop- 
ulation. As  already  noted,  results  were  incomplete  but  repre- 
sentative and  trustworthy  except  for  the  cities  of  larger  size. 
Regret  is  felt  that  little  information  in.  regard  to  sex  division 
of  the  inmates  was  obtained.  Table  XXXIII  summarizes  the 
returns. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     105 
TABLE  XXXIII55 

Kural  and  Urban  Insanity  in  County  Homes,  Certain  Counties  of  Iowa, 

August,  1917 

Division  No.  insane  per 

considered  1000    population 

Total  population  .57 

Country  .58 

Villages  and  towns  .37 

Towns  2000-4000  .67 

Towns   4000-8000  .32 

Cities  8000-25,000  ,64 

CHties   25,000    and   over  1.01 

Upon  comparing  this  table  with  the  parallel  one  for  admis- 
sions to  State  institutions  for  the  insane,  two  features  stand  out, 
the  comparative  increase  in  rate  for  the  open  country,  here 
slightly  above  the  rate  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  and  the  great 
decrease  in  the  rate  for  villages  and  towns  under  2000.  The 
open  country  rate,  however,  is  very  little  above  the  State  average 
and,  with  only  one-fourth  as  many  insane  in  county  as  State 
institutions,  will  not  go  far  toward  counter-balancing  the  record 
in  the  other  table.  The  same  holds  true  with  reference  to  the 
record  of  villages  and  towns,  though  their  variations  both  above 
and  below  the  State  average  are  larger  than  those  for  the  open 
country.  Towns  2000-4000  still  show  a  comparatively  high 
rate.  The  exceedingly  high  rate  for  cities  above  25000  is  based 
on  returns  from  only  one  city. 

RECORD  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CITIES 

The  record  for  individual  cities  in  total  number  of  insane  ad- 
mitted to  State  hospitals  and  the  proportions  of  men  and  women 
among  them  are  given  in  Table  XXXIV. 


106 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


TABLE  XXXIV^" 


Comparative  Table,  Admissions  to  State  Hospitals  For  Insane  From 
Cities  of  Iowa,  1909-1916 


Eank  in 
City        population 

No.  per  1000 
population 

4) 

AA  a 

S  S 

Males 

Females 

Total 

1. 

Atlantic 

34 

5.92 

2.63 

8.55 

1 

14 

2. 

Keokuk 

13 

4.57 

3.14 

7.71 

2 

6 

3. 

Shenandoah 

27 

3.22 

4.22 

7.44 

13 

2 

4. 

Ft.   Madison 

19 

4.27 

2.81 

7.08 

4 

10 

5. 

Glenwood 

39 

2.47 

4.52 

6.99 

27 

1 

6. 

Clarinda 

40 

2.61 

3.91 

6.52 

24 

3 

7. 

Cedar  Rapids 

5 

3.32 

3.20 

6.52 

11 

4 

8. 

Perry 

32 

3.67 

2,81 

6.48 

6 

11 

9. 

Marshalltown 

14 

4.56 

1.79 

6.36 

3 

29 

10. 

Ames 

37 

3.16 

3.16 

6.31 

14 

5 

11. 

Charles  City 

23 

3.73 

2.38 

6.11 

5 

18 

12, 

Oskaloosa 

18 

3.49 

2.54 

6.02 

8 

15 

13. 

Eed  Oak 

31 

2.90 

3.11 

6.00 

20 

7 

14. 

Creston 

21 

3.61 

2.17 

5.78 

7 

22 

15. 

Albia 

29 

3.35 

2.35 

5.70 

10 

19 

16. 

Des  Moines 

1 

3.15 

2.52 

5.67 

15 

16 

17. 

Ft.  Dodge 

12 

2.51 

2.96 

5.47 

19 

8 

18. 

Chariton 

41 

2.64 

2.64 

5.27 

23 

13 

19. 

Mason  City 

15 

3.29 

1.87 

5.16 

12 

26 

20. 

Sioux  City 

2 

2.97 

2.17 

5.14 

18 

21 

21. 

Cedar  Falls 

26 

2.83 

2.30 

5.13 

22 

20 

22. 

Waterloo 

7 

2.36 

2.66 

5.02 

29 

12 

23. 

Centerville 

20 

2.88 

2.02 

4.90 

21 

24 

24. 

Iowa   City 

17 

3.47 

1.39 

4.86 

9 

36 

25. 

Boone 

16 

3.00 

1.84 

4.83 

17 

28 

26. 

Fairfield 

28 

3.02 

1.61 

4.68 

16 

32 

27. 

Newton 

33 

1.73 

2.82 

4.55 

36 

9 

28. 

Ottumwa 

10 

2.45 

2.09 

4.54 

28 

23 

29. 

Burlington 

9 

2.51 

1.97 

4.48 

26 

25 

30. 

Le  Mars 

38 

1.92 

2.41 

4.33 

35 

17 

31. 

Clinton 

8 

2.11 

1.84 

3.95 

32 

27 

32. 

Muscatine 

11 

2.23 

1.67 

3.89 

31 

31 

State  of  Iowa 

2.U 

1.61 

3.85 

29-30 

32-3, 

33. 

Davenport 

3 

2.23 

1.56 

3.79 

30 

34 

34. 

Grinnell 

25 

1.99 

1.79 

3.77 

33 

30 

35. 

Washington 

36 

2.51 

1.14 

3.65 

25 

38 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     107 

36.  Council   Bluffs      6  1.95  1.40  3.35  34  35 

37.  Marion                 35  1.59  1.59  3.18  37  33 

38.  Webster   City      24  1.54  1.15  2.69  38  37 

39.  Dubuque                4  1.22  .99  2,21  40  39 

40.  Oelwein                22  1.33  .66  1.99  39  41 

41.  Cherokee  30  1.02  .68  1.71  41  40 

As  already  noted,  there  is  little  if  any  correlation  between 
size  of  urban  center  and  insanity  rate.  Superficial  investiga- 
tion of  this  table  points  in  the  same  direction.  The  town  with 
highest  rate  is  of  comparatively  small  size.  Keokuk,  the  sec- 
ond, is  much  larger,  but  the  third  is  again  small.  No  large 
city  is  found  until  we  reach  Cedar  Rapids,  seventh  in  order. 
Des  Moines,  the  next  large  city,  is  sixteenth.  Use  of  Spear- 
man's coefficient  gives  like  results.  No  direct  correlation  is  to 
be  found  between  rank  in  population  and  rat«  of  admission, 
for  all  insane,  or  for  either  men  or  women.  Elimination  from 
consideration  of  cities  making  large  use  of  private  institutions 
and  so  not  offering  normal  conditions,  still  left  the  result  in- 
conclusive ;  either  no  coefficient  was  obtained  or  one  much  less 
than  probable  error. 

Certain  towns  and  cities  show  peculiar  records  in  the  com- 
parative numbers  of  men  and  women  admitted  to  hospitals 
for  the  insane,  but  probably  these  are  not  very  significant. 
The  absence  of  data  for  county  and  private  isstitutions,  which 
receive  a  larger  proportion  of  women  than  do  the  State  insti- 
tutions and  the  possibilities  for  chance  variation  in  relatively 
small  cities  render  such  evidence  of  doubtful  value. 

RECORDS  ELSEWHERE 
By  v;ay  of  comparison  certain  figures  obtained  by  an  anal- 
ysis of  material  furnished  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Census  Bulletin  on  Insane  and  Feeble-Minded  in  Institutions, 
1910,  Avill  be  of  interest."  In  this  report  all  population  living 
in  the  open  country  or  villages  and  towns  under  2500  is  classed 
as  rural.  For  Iowa  this  would  seem  very  unwise,  including 
as  it  would  under  one  head  the  divisions  of  the  population 
having  the  lowest  rate  and  the  highest  rate  of  insanity  respect- 
ively. But  the  figures  are  nevertheless  of  some  value.  They 
show  that  the  rate  per  thousand  of  admissions  to  insane  hos- 


108  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

pitals  from  rural  districts,  so  defined,  was  for  1910  .414,  that 
of  admissions  from  urban  centers,  .860,  more  than  twice  as 
great.  Of  the  total  population  of  the  country  53.7  per  cent  in 
1910  was  classed  as  rural.  Of  the  total  number  of  insane  ad- 
mitted to  the  institutions  in  that  year  only  33.6  per  cent  were 
of  rural  residence.  In  the  west  north  central  states,  66.7  per 
cent  of  the  population  was  reported  as  rural  but  only  51.7  per 
cent  of  the  insane  admitted  to  hospitals  were  so  classified. 

In,  reference  to  the  question  of  insanity  among  women  in 
rural  districts,  it  is  worth  noting  that,  for  the  country  as  a 
whole,  of  the  total  number  of  women  admitted  to  hospitals  for 
the  insane,  only  32.9  per  cent  were  of  rural  residence  while 
the  corresponding  figure  for  men  is  34.2  per  cent.  For  the 
west  north  central  states,  the  corresponding  figures  are  48.6 
per  cent  and  54.1  per  cent  for  women  and  men  respectively. 
There  is  no  evidence  here  of  an  abnormal  rate  of  insanity  in 
rural  districts.  The  value  of  this  evidence,  however,  is  min- 
imized by  the  inclusion  of  village  population  with  that  of  the 
open  country.^^ 

CHARACTER  OF  INSANITY 
The  United  States  Census  Bulletin  already  quoted,  a  study 
of  admissions  to  the  New  York  Hospitals,  and  a  study  in 
jMichigan  reveal  some  interesting  facts  in  regard  to  the  differ- 
ences in  character  and  cause  of  insanity  in  rural  and  urban 
districts.  The  United  States  Census  figures  show  that  15.2  per 
cent  of  all  admissions  to  insane  hospitals,  21.2  per  cent  of  those 
from  urban,  districts,  and  10.2  per  cent  of  those  from  rural 
districts  were  for  general  paralysis  or  alcoholic  psychosis. 
The  rural  rate  of  admission  for  these  types  of  insanity  is  .042 
per  thousand  population,  while  the  urban  rate  is  .182  or  nearly 
four  and  one-half  times  as  great.  According  to  the  New  York 
study,  "the  urban  communities  appear  to  contribute  to  the  in- 
sanity roll  because  of  the  dissipations  of  the  city.  In  1910, 
seventeen  per  cent  of  all  men  admitted,  and  eight  per  cent  of 
all  women  admitted  to  the  state  hospitals,  were  admitted  be- 
cause of  paresis  due  to  venereal  diseases  of  one  sort  or  another. 
It  is  also  claimed  that  'fully  thirty  per  cent  of  the  men  and 
ten  per  cent  of  the  women  admitted  to  the  state  hospitals  of  New 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     109 

York  are  sent  there  either  directly  or  indirectly  because  of  the  use 
of  alcohol. '  It  appears  that  rural  insanity,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
more  the  result  of  isolation.  Melancholia  and  senile  dementia 
are  the  characteristic  rural  mental  disorders."  The  results 
of  the  Michigan  study  likewise  go  to  "show  that  urban  in- 
sanity is  closely  related  to  venereal  disease,  alcohol  and  diTigs, 
while  rural  insanity  is  due  to  hereditary  defect,  isolation,  and 
old  age."5» 

No  serious  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  study  to  secure 
data  in  regard  to  the  character  of  insanity  in  Iowa,  or  to 
compare  the  character  of  the  insanity  of  rural  with  that  of 
urban  communities.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  a  con- 
siderably larger  per  cent  of  the  rural  insane  than  the  urban 
insane  are  kept  in  the  county  homes.  Likewise  a  much  higher 
proportion  of  the  insane  among  women  than  of  the  insane 
among  men  are  kept  in  county  institutions.  The  character  of 
the  insanity  most  common  in  rural  districts  and  among  women 
may  be  in  a  considerable  measure  responsible.  The  fact  that 
women,  normally  less  subject  to  dissipation  than  men,  and 
rural  districts  likewise  normally  less  affected  by  dissipation 
than  urban,  show  this  common  tendency  supports  this  idea. 
Quite  likely  Iowa  conditions  parallel  those  found  in  Michi- 
gan and  elsewhere  as  to  contrast  in  character  between  rural 
and  urban  insanity. 


VII 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CERTAIN  FACTORS 

UPON  SOCIAL  INFECTION 

A.  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  RACIAL  COMPOSITION  OF 
POPULATION 
In  a  consideration  of  the  factors  accounting  for  the  varia- 
tion in  criminality  and  dependence  between  communities,  one 
of  the  most  common  hypothetical  explanations  is  that  of  dif- 
ference in  racial  composition.  Accordingly  some  attempt  has 
been  made  to  investigate  the  merits  of  this  explanation.  The 
figures  given  in  the  United  States  Census  of  1910  as  to  the 
per  cent  of  foreign  born,  and  of  those  of  foreign  parentage  in 
the  various  counties  and  large  cities  were  utilized,  and  an 
attempt  made  to  discover  the  presence  or  absence  of  correlation 
between  these  and  the  rates  of  criminality  and  dependency  in 
the  various  counties.  The  results  of  this  study  are  in  part  sum- 
marized in  Table  XXXV. 

TABLE  XXXV" 

Foreign  Population  and  Social  Infection:  A  study  of  the  Twenty  Iowa 

Counties  with  the  Highest  Percentage  of  Population  of 

Foreign  Birth  or  Parentage 


Counties    in    order    of  .2  g  .9  .^  -3  "g  'C  .+S  '=  "^  -3  "i  §  +.  <»  '3  ST  ra  1 

per   cent     of     foreign   S  g  .S  >  |  |  ^  p.  |  ^  o  |  |  |  |  « ^    |  §, 

birth  or  parentage         5^  5S  ^§^Sig£^gK?gc3.3*^« 

1.  Sioux                     94  99  89  33  83  51  65         84 

2.  Winnebago           46  43  81  91  73  71  73         96 

3.  Worth                   51  93  74  82  84  87  64         26 

4.  Lyon                      84  97  76  53  87  88  71         98 

5.  Crawford              50  72  31  67  74  85  90         19 

6.  Winneshiek           11  58  48  3  46  57  83         54 

7.  Plymouth              36  30  29  29  94  0  0         69 

8.  Buena  Vista       81  89  66  84  82  23  16         61 

(110) 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     111 


9. 

Hancock 

70 

74 

93 

74 

97 

75 

84 

37 

10. 

Scott 

6 

25 

9 

35 

19 

3 

7 

11 

11. 

Grundy 

98 

77 

98 

72 

90 

59 

85 

69 

12. 

Osceola 

72 

87 

20 

59 

81 

82 

81 

60 

13. 

Dubuque 

19 

57 

37 

77 

36 

8 

11 

14 

14. 

Audubon 

80 

62 

82 

57 

34 

83 

59 

97 

15. 

Clinton 

4 

49 

33 

75 

4 

14 

24 

4 

16. 

Humboldt 

91 

63 

75 

23 

67 

25 

12 

92 

17. 

Ida 

78 

96 

80 

30 

93 

0 

0 

44 

18. 

Kossuth 

97 

55 

84 

37 

51 

48 

14 

66 

19. 

Shelby 

89 

95 

96 

94 

96 

0 

0 

90 

20. 

Allamakee 

63 

98 

97 

51 

66 

77 

79 

46 

TABLE  XXXV  Contd. 
Eecords  of  Counties  in  Tables  on  Tuberculosis,  Feeble-Minded  and  Insane 


Tubercular 

Feeble-minded 

Insane 

admissions 

inmates 

inmates 

1. 

Sioux 

93 

82 

98 

2. 

Winnebago 

34 

81 

59 

3.' 

Worth 

4 

92 

14 

4. 

Lyon 

75 

97 

95 

5. 

Crawford 

74 

5 

65 

6. 

Winneshiek 

39 

88 

9 

7. 

Plymouth 

83 

91 

61 

8. 

Buena  Vista 

71 

78 

25 

9. 

Hancock 

42 

62 

30 

10. 

Scott 

2 

43 

2 

11. 

Grundy 

68 

54 

91 

12. 

Osceola 

80 

77 

82 

13. 

Dubuque 

40 

46 

24 

14. 

Audubon 

63 

93 

71 

15. 

Clinton 

22 

65 

8 

16. 

Humboldt 

10 

34 

48 

17. 

Ida 

38 

55 

29 

18. 

Kossuth 

27 

44 

97 

19. 

Shelby 

97 

87 

40 

20. 

Allamakee 

81 

38 

17 

In  this  table  the  twenty  counties  with  the  highest  percent- 
age of  population  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage  are  considered, 
and  their  rank  in  the  various  tables  of  criminality,  juvenile 
delinquency,  dependence  and  defectives  is  given  foi-  compari- 
son. In  the  twenty  counties,  with  no  correlation,  we  would 
expect  to  find  one-fifth  of  twenty  or  four  counties  from  any 
given  twenty  from  any  other  table.  The  total  sum  of  ranks 
also,   with  no   correlation,   ought  normally   to  be   1000.     How 


112  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

nearly  this  is  the  situation  is  shown  in  the  table  below,  which 
gives  the  number  included  in  the  twenty  from  the  first  twenty 
and  also  the  last  twenty  of  each  of  the  other  tables,  and  the 
sum  of  ranks  of  the  twenty  in  eacli  of  the  other  tables. 

TABLE  XXXVI 

Analysis  of  Table  Showing  Effect  of  Foreign  Population  Upon 
Seriousness  of  Social  Infection 

No.  of  first  20  No.  of  last  20  Sum  of  ranks 

in  first  20  in  in    first   20   in  first  20  for- 

foreign  popu-  foreign  popu-  eign    popula- 

Series  compared                         lation                   lation  tion 

Normal  distribution  4  4  1000 

Criminal  prosecutions  4  8  1210 

Criminal  convictions  0  8  1419 

Penal  commitments  2  9  1298 

Inebriate  commitments  1  4  1126 

Industrial   school  commitments     2  10  1357 

Juvenile  court  cases  3  8  1303 

Juvenile  delinquency  4  8  1200 

Total  dependency     '  4  6  1137 

Tubercular  hospital  admissions     3  5  1043 
Inmates  institution 

feeble-minded  1  8  1312 

Inmates,  hospitals  insane  5  5  965 

From  this  analysis  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  in  every  case  but 
one  if  any  correlation  exists,  it  is  an  inverse  correlation.  In 
the  exceptional  case,  that  of  the  inmates  of  hospitals  for  in- 
sane, the  record  is  not  entirely  consistent.  While  the  number 
in  the  first  twenty  and  the  sum  of  ranks  points  to  a  slightly 
abnormal  rate  of  insanity,  the  record  for  number  in  the  last 
twenty  points  the  other  way.  The  evidence  is  inconclusive. 
The  counties  with  larger  foreign  element  furnish  less  than  a 
normal  per  cent  of  the  criminality,  delinquency,  inebriate 
commitments,  dependence,  and  of  the  tuberculous  and  feeble- 
minded admissions.  Records  for  the  latter  two  are  so  largely  a 
measure  of  intelligent  effort  toward  dealing  with  the  problems, 
rather  than  of  the  seriousness  of  the  problem,  that  they  merit 
separate  consideration.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  for 
the  remaining  tables  the  distribution,  of  ranks  for  inebriate 
commitments  more  nearly  approaches  the  normal.  These 
counties  seem  to  offend  most  in  the  direction  of  inebriety.    This 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     113 

may  be  either  a  direct  or  an  indirect  result  of  a  different 
standard  as  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors.  The  ranks  of  de- 
pendence are  second  in  their  proximity  to  normal  distribution. 

In  admissions  to  tubercular  hospitals  the  record  of  the 
twenty  counties  is  perhaps  as  nearly  normal  as  chance  varia- 
tion would  permit.  There  is  divergence  in  both  directions,  but 
comparatively  slight  in  either.  In  reference  to  the  record  in 
feeble-mindedness,  it  must  be  noted  that  only  two  of  the 
twenty  counties  considered  are  located  in  the  southwest  quar- 
ter of  the  State  which,  owing  to  proximity  to  the  State  Insti- 
tution has  made  comparatively  large  use  of  the  facilities  for 
care  of  the  feeble-minded.  The  two  counties  coming  within 
that  section  are  on  its  border.  There  is  therefore  much  rea- 
son for  doubting  if  this  record  offers  any  evidence  of  true  cor- 
relation between  the  presence  of  foreign  population  elements 
and  neglect  in  caring  for  the  feeble-minded. 

The  twenty  counties  considered  above  are  largely  rural,  only 

three  large  cities  being  included  within  their  borders.  The 
following  table  shows  the  situation  for  the  cities  of  over  25,000 
population  in  1910, 

TABLE  XXXVII" 


Comparative  Table,  Correlation  Between  Per  Cent  of  Population  of  Foreign 

Birth  or   Parentage  and  Rate  of   Commitments  or  Admissions  to 

State  institutions  in  Iowa  Cities  above  25,000  in  1910 


Inebriate 

Cities  in  rank      Per 

cent 

of 

Penal  commit- 

Ind. School 

conmiit- 

of  foreign            pop.  for( 

sign 

ments  per 

commitments 

ments 

population          birth  or  prge. 

1000  pop. 

per  1000 

per 

1000 

1.      Dubuque 

59.5 

1.01 

.747 

.64 

2.     Davenport 

57.5 

1.37 

1.650 

1.35 

3.     Clinton 

53.9 

1.21 

.860 

.86 

4.     Sioux  City 

52.5 

1.92 

1.505 

2.11 

5.     Cedar  Rapids 

46.2 

2.22 

2.286 

4.36 

6.     Council  Bluffs 

40.8 

1.97 

1.271 

2.14 

7.     Des    Moines 

34.3 

3.47 

2.420 

4.92 

8.     Waterloo 

34.0 

1.05 

.936 

2.43 

114 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


Admissions    insti- 

Admissions 

Tubercular 

hos- 

tutions  for 

hospital 

pital 

admissions 

feeble-minded 

for  insane 

1. 

Dubuque 

.60 

.55 

2.21 

2. 

Davenport 

1.67 

.82 

3.79 

3. 

Clinton 

1.17 

.74 

3.95 

4. 

Sioux  City 

.71 

1.34 

5.14 

5. 

Cedar  Eapids 

4.63 

.61 

6.52 

6. 

Council  Bluffs 

.38 

.99 

3.35 

7. 

Des  Moines 

2.50 

1.62 

5.07 

8. 

Waterloo 

.82 

.97 

5.02 

This  table  indicates  no  positive  correlation  between  foreign 
population  and  criminality,  but  rather  the  opposite.  Notable 
also  is  the  failure  of  this  table  to  show  the  tendency  toward  a 
higher  rate  in.  inebriate  commitments  noted  in  the  preceding 
table.  The  failure  of  the  cities  to  show  this  tendency  may  pos- 
sibly be  explained  by  a  greater  uniformity  in  the  use  of  liquor 
characteristic  of  the  foreign  element  than  of  the  native  element 
in  the  population.  In  cities  where  liquor  has  been  more  easily 
obtained,  the  native  population  may  tend  to  use  considerably 
more  than  where  the  temptation  is  absent.  The  foreign  element 
may  be  less  affected  by  this  presence  or  absence  of  temptation. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  inebriates  from  these  particular 
counties  might  come  from  the  native  element  in  the  population, 
less  able  to  use  liquor  in  moderation,  but  this  offers  no  explana- 
tion, for  the  relatively  low  rate  from  the  cities  where  temptation 
would  be  greatest.  The  foreign  element  would  seem  to  furnish 
some  little  proportion  of  those  committed  to  the  hospitals  for 
inebriates.  The  attitude  of  the  local  authorities  toward  in- 
ebriates and  their  commitment  to  institutions  may,  however,  be 
a  big  factor  in  explaining  the  absence  of  any  tendency  toward 
correlation. 

The  record  of  the  cities  in  admission  of  defectives  roughly 
parallels  the  record  for  criminality,  showing  a  like  absence  of 
correlation  with  per  cent  of  foreign  population. 

In  considering  this  notable  absence  of  excessive  criminality 
or  proportion  of  defectives  in  Iowa's  foreign  population,  it 
must  be  noted  that  this  population  is  very  largely  made  up  of 
northern  Europeans  of  the  old  immigration,  people  who  in  many 
cases  came  to  the  State  years  ago  and  entered  primarily  into 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     115 

agriculture.  In  1910  Iowa's  foreign  born  population  was 
273,765,  of  which  number  252,664,  or  92.3  per  cent,  were  fiom 
Canada  or  northern  Europe.'^-  Consequently,  comparisons  with 
States  receiving  a  large  share  of  the  new  immigi-ation  from 
southern  Europe,  which  tends  to  center  in  the  cities,  are 
hardly  possible.  As  will  be  noted  later,  mining  counties  con- 
tain a  considerable  element  of  the  newer  immigration  and  have 
a  different  record. 

B.  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS 
1.  Manufacturing.  Another  possible  factor  in  the  explana- 
tion of  social  evils  is  foimd  in  the  industrial  situation.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  in  this  study  to  ascertain,  whether  indus- 
trial influences  explain  anything  as  to  conditions  discovered  in 
this  State.  Data  as  to  the  number  of  people  employed  in  manu- 
facturing pursuits  in  all  the  cities  of  the  State  with  a  popula- 
tion of  10,000  or  more  is  given  in  the  Federal  Census.  From 
this  data  has  been  calculated  the  per  cent  which  the  total  num- 
ber of  factory  employees  form  of  each  city's  population,  and 
likewise  the  per  cent  of  children  under  sixteen  working  in  fac- 
tories. 

The  results  obtained  as  to  total  number  of  employees  are 
given  in  the  follo\\ing  table  and  the  rank  of  each  city  in  jDcnal, 
inebriate  hospital,  and  industrial  school  commitments  given  in 
comparison, 

TABLE  XXXVIII«^ 

Comparative  Table,  Correlation  between   Per  Cent  of  Population   Engaged 

in  Manufacturing  and  Rates  of  Commitment  to  State  Institutions, 

Iowa  Cities  Above  10,000  in  1910 


c      r— ■  *: 


c    c 

•"^  c 

Q-*     rr 

g  5r  -^ 

(=  r;  K 

c     f~   *- 

-1 

>  o 

Cities,  rank  in 

=*H  ■'"  "E 
O    c    ^ 

E- 

O    O    K 
<^    or.    E- 

•r   g    E 

C    cr    C 
^  ■^   c 

per  cen  of  pop- 
lation  in  manu- 
facturing 

Per  cer 
populat 
manufa 

P^  E  c- 

a  a  ^ 

■  Ec 

'T-  *-  C 
H^E^ 

1.  Muscatine 

21.61 

1.73 

9 

.93 

14 

2.411 

2 

2.  Burlington 

17.23 

1.44 

10 

.41 

17 

.452 

17 

116 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


3. 

Dubiujue 

13.40 

1.01 

17 

.64 

16 

.747 

16 

4. 

Ottumwa 

12.04 

2.50 

2 

4.29 

3 

1.908 

5 

5. 

Waterloo 

11.70 

1.05 

16 

2.43 

8 

.936 

14 

6. 

Keokuk 

11.00 

1.93 

6 

2.64 

6 

1.499 

10 

7. 

Cedar  Eapids 

10.87 

2.22 

3 

4.36 

2 

2.286 

3 

8. 

Marshalltown 

10.21 

1.42 

11 

2.-54 

7 

1.944 

4 

9. 

Davenport 

9.83 

1.37 

12 

1.35 

13 

1.650 

6 

10. 

Clinton 

9.44 

1.21 

14 

.86 

15 

.860 

15 

11. 

Sioux  City 

7.84 

1.92 

7 

2.11 

11 

1.505 

9 

12. 

Mason  City 

7.18 

2.05 

4 

1.42 

12 

1.603 

7 

13. 

Ft.  Dodge 

7.17 

1.29 

13 

3.99 

4 

1.499 

11 

14. 

Des  Moines 

6.23 

3.47 

1 

4.92 

1 

2.420 

1 

15. 

Council  Bluffs 

4.80 

1.97 

5 

2.14 

10 

1.271 

12 

16. 

Boone 

3.19 

1.84 

8 

2.90 

5 

1.548 

8 

17. 

Iowa  City 

2.79 

1.19 

15 

2.28 

9 

1.090 

13 

TABLE  XXXVIII 


■^.  s 

rt     (h     O 

'S  Si 

rrt  '«  O 

^23 

la  '^  "^ 

0 

O    a:    3 

S  c  « 

.2 

.2  2 

Cities  rank   in   per 
cent  of  population 

S;  ■"  o 

-^  e  o 

^ 

6  .°  ^ 

^ 

M 

in   manufacturing 

di   .-H     C 

o" 

c  ^  o 

« 

1. 

Muscatine 

.87 

13 

.62 

14 

3.89 

14 

2. 

Burlington 

1.69 

8 

.99 

7 

4.48 

12 

3. 

Dubuque 

.60 

16 

.55 

17 

2.21 

17 

4. 

Ottumwa 

1.86 

6 

1.41 

2 

4.54 

11 

5. 

Waterloo 

.82 

14 

.97 

8 

5.02 

8 

6. 

Keokuk 

2.78 

4 

.93 

9 

7.71 

1 

7. 

Cedar  Eapids 

4.63 

2 

.61 

15 

6.52 

2 

8. 

Marshalltown 

1.72 

7 

.82 

11 

6.36 

3 

9. 

Davenport 

1.67 

9 

.86 

10 

3.79 

15 

10. 

Clinton 

1.17 

12 

.74 

13 

3.95 

13 

11. 

Sioux  City 

.71 

15 

1.34 

3 

5.14 

7 

12. 

Mason   City 

1.20 

11 

1.07 

5 

5.16 

6 

13. 

Ft.   Dodge 

1.48 

10 

.77 

12 

5.47 

5 

14. 

Des  Moines 

2.50 

5 

1.62 

1 

5.67 

4 

15. 

Council   Bluffs 

.38 

17 

.99 

6 

3.35 

16 

16. 

Boone 

3.96 

3 

1.26 

4 

4.83 

10 

17. 

Iowa   City 

5.95 

1 

.59 

16 

4.86 

9 

Muscatine,  the  city  with  the  largest  proportion  of  its  popula- 
tion engaged  in  manufacturing  pursuits,  has  the  second  high- 
est per  cent  of  industrial  commitments.  Beyond  this  no  points 
of  special  significance  appear.     Superficial  observation  of  the 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     117 

table  reveals  no  correlation  between  per  cent  of  population 
employed  in  factories  and  rank  in  commitments  or  admissions 
to  State  institutions  and  the  use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives 
no  proof  of  such  a  connection.  If  an}'  exists  at  all  it  is  an  inverse 
correlation.  As  has  already  been  shown,  cities  and  towns  have 
far  higher  rates  than  does  the  open  country,  but  there  is  no 
statistical  proof  that  industrial  cities  have  higher  rates  than 
non-industrial  cities. 

The  statistics  as  to  the  per  cent  of  children  under  sixteen 
employed  in  factories  are  summarized  in  Table  XXXIX,  and 
the  rank  of  the  cities  in  rate  of  industrial  school  commitments 
is  given  for  comparison. 

TABLE  XXXIX"* 


Comparative  Table,  Correlation,  Child  Labor  and  Industrial  School 
Commitments  in   Iowa   Cities  above   10,000   in   1910 


Ind.   school 

Per   cent   pop. 

commitments 

Rank  cities 

Cities  in   order  per 

child  laborers 

per   1000 

industrial 

cent  child  laborers 

.  under  16 

population 

commitments 

1.     Muscatine 

.786 

2.411 

2 

2.     Ottumwa 

.359 

1.908 

5 

3.     Cedar  Rapids 

.293 

2.286 

3 

4.     Dubuque 

.255 

.747 

16 

5.     Burlington 

.243 

.452 

17 

6.     Marshalltown 

.194 

1.944 

4 

7.     Fort  Dodge 

.187 

1.287 

11 

8.     Keokuk 

.186 

1.499 

10 

9.     Davenport 

.167 

1.650 

6 

10.     Clinton 

.160 

.860 

15 

11.     Des  Moines 

.125 

2.420 

1 

12.     Sioux  City 

.094 

1.505 

9 

13.     Boone 

.019 

1.548 

8 

14.     Council  Bluffs 

.017 

1.271 

12 

15.     Waterloo 

.011 

.936 

14 

16.     Iowa  City 

.000 

1.090 

13 

17.     Mason  City 

.000 

1.603 

7 

The  rank  of  Muscatine,  Ottumwa,  and  Cedar  liapids  would 
suggest  the  existence  of  correlation.  The  high  rank  of  Des 
Moines  in  industrial  school  commitments  despite  its  low  rank 
in  per  cent  of  child  laborers  need  in  no  way  disprove  this,  since 


118  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

in  a  city  of  that  size  other  factors  would  enter.  Dubuque  and 
Burlington,  however,  pretty  clearly  oifer  exceptions  to  any  rule 
as  to  correlation,  their  record  being  quite  in  contrast  to  the 
facts  indicated  by  the  rest  of  the  table. 

Use  of  Spearman's  formula  gave  a  direct  correlation  of  .1875, 
with  a  probable  error  of  .104.  This  would  indicate  the  existence 
of  correlation,  though  not  to  a  high  degree.  With  Dubuque 
and  Burlington,  eliminated  from  tlie  table,  the  coefficient  of 
correlation  given  is  .41  with  a  probable  error  of  .11.  It 
can  be  assumed  that  tliere  is  a  considerable  degree  of  correla- 
tion ordinarily  between  child  labor  and  juvenile  delinquency. 
The  record  of  Dubuque  and  Burlington  is  anomalous.  There 
must  be  some  unusual  factors  in  tlie  local  situation  which  are 
responsible  for  their  low  rates  of  industrial  school  commit- 
ments. Dubuque  County  showed  a  rank  of  eighth  in  rate  of 
juvenile  court  cases  and  of  eleventh  in  cases  of  juvenile  delin- 
quency. Serious  delinquency  must  exist  though  few  are  actual- 
ly committed  to  the  industrial  schools.  Continuous  charity  or- 
ganization work,  the  efficient  work  of  a  police  matron  employed 
since  1907,  and  the  reputed  conservativeness  of  the  judges,  may 
partially  explain  the  Burlington  situation.  Anotlier  explana- 
tion of  the  low  degree  of  correlation  which  could  be  shown  in 
actual  figures  lies  in  the  fact  that  not  all  child  laborers  are  in- 
cluded in  this  study,  but  merely  tliose  employed  in  factories. 
The  large  number  engaged  as  boot-blacks,  and  in  various  street 
trades  are  not  taken  into  account.  Various  investigations  as 
to  the  relation  between  delinquency  and  employment  have 
shown  that  this  relation  is  much  closer  in  the  case  of  the  street 
trades  than  any  other  common  form  of  child  labor.^^  Un- 
doubtedly this  is  a  factor  in  the  Des  Moines  situation. 

Attention  has  already  been  repeatedly  called  to  the  evident 
seriousness  of  the  juvenile  delinquency  problem  at  Muscatine. 
One  source  of  explanation  is  that  this  medium  sized  city  has 
more  child  industrial  laborers  in  absolute  numbers  than  any 
other  city  in  the  State,  and  more  than  twice  as  many  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size  as  the  nearest  city,  Ottumwa. 

2.  Mining.  The  foregoing  tables  did  not  cover  the  indus- 
trial field  as  a  whole,  but  only  the  conditions  in  manufacturing 
cities.     Iowa  is  an  important  coal  mining  State,  and  the  coal 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     119 

mining  communities  furnish  conditions  different  from  those 
of  the  other  urban  centers.  Special  attention  has  accordingly 
been  given  to  conditions  in.  the  coal  mining  counties. 

The  material  upon  which  this  study  is  based  was  obtained 
from  the  biennial  report  of  the  State  Mine  Inspectors.  Figures 
for  1914  were  available,  but  it  was  thought  more  advisable  to 
use  the  1910  statistics  since  the  1910  census  has  been  used  al- 
most exclusively  as  the  basis  both  for  population  and  for  manu- 
factures. ]\Ioreover,  conditions  at  a  time  nearer  the  middle  of 
the  period  covered  are  more  liable  to  be  typical  of  conditions 
throughout  the  period  than  are  conditions  at  the  close. 

There  were  coal  mines  in  operation  in  1910  in  twenty-three 
different  counties  in  Iowa.  It  was  decided,  however,  not  to 
consider  in  this  study  the  counties  in  which  less  than  one  per 
cent  of  the  population  was  employed  in  mining.  Webster 
County,  though  having  less  than  one  per  cent  engaged  in  coal 
mining,  was  included  because  of  the  presence  of  gypsum  mines 
in  that  county.  Neither  the  1910  Federal  Census  nor  the  State 
Mine  Inspectors'  reports  give  any  figures  as  to  the  number  of 
men  employed  in  the  gypsum  mines.  Twelve  counties  in  all 
were  considered.  Table  XL  gives  the  rank  of  the  counties  and 
per  cent  of  population  employed  in  the  coal  mining  industry. 
In  parallel  columns  is  given  the  rank  of  each  county  in  each 
of  the  chief  lines  of  investigation  already  taken  up. 

TABLE  XL«« 
Eank  of  Coal  Mining  Counties  in  Certain  Representative  Tables 

„    O   S  2 


s  aj  C 

cc 

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Monroe 

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3 

120 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


6. 

Wayne 

60 

41 

42 

7 

12 

53 

51 

48 

52             1 

7. 

Jasper 

31 

38 

49 

56 

28 

35 

31 

55 

37 

8. 

Marion 

54 

16 

45 

26 

76 

41 

35 

34 

24 

9. 

Dallas 

95 

73 

58 

41 

30 

32 

33 

93 

72 

10. 

Wapello             13 

10 

5 

2 

2 

63 

6 

14 

1 

11. 

Adams 

57 

8 

22 

94 

38 

20 

92 

81 

94 

12. 

Webster             93 

50 

25 

5 

26 

21 

61 

6 

20 

Inmates 

^ 

Mining  counties  ic 

Tubercular 

institution 

Inmates 

rank 

per  cent  of 

hospital 

for  feeble- 

hospitals 

population   mining 

admissions 

minded 

for  insane 

1. 

Appanoose 

91 

69 

96 

2. 

Monroe 

82 

90 

88 

3. 

Mahaska 

55 

32 

36 

4. 

Polk 

6 

37 

45 

5. 

Boone 

7 

53 

17 

6. 

Wayne 

64 

51 

81 

7. 

Jasper 

73 

25 

67 

8. 

Marion 

77 

56 

28 

9. 

Dallas 

78 

35 

35 

10. 

Wapello 

25 

19 

15 

11. 

Adams 

94 

26 

55 

12. 

Webster 

47 

76 

14 

TABLE  XLI 

Analysis  of  Table  Showing  Correlation  of  Mining  Population 
Per  Cent  and  Social  Infection 


No. 

of  1st   12 

No 

of  last  12 

Sum   of  ranks 

in 

1st  12  in 

in 

1st  12  in 

of 

1st   12   in 

mining  popu- 

mining  popu- 

mining  popu 

Series  compared 

lation 

lation 

lation 

Normal  distribution 

1  or  2 

1  or  2 

600 

Criminal    prosecutions 

4 

2 

458 

Criminal  convictions 

6 

0 

282 

Penal  commitments 

4 

0 

390 

Inebriate   hosp.    com. 

4 

1 

362 

Industrial  school  com. 

4 

0 

306 

Juvenile  Ct.  cases 

2 

0 

384 

County   home  inmates 

2 

1 

505 

Outdoor   relief 

1 

1 

473 

Total    dependency 

2 

1 

442 

Tubercular  hosp.  admis 

2 

2 

699 

Feeble-minded    inmates 

0 

1 

569 

Insane  inmates 

0 

2 

577 

From  this  table  it  is  clear  that  the  twelve  counties  rank  higher 
in  every  one  of  the  rates  for  criminality  and  dependence  than 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     121 

should  normally  be  the  case.  There  is  evidently  some  correla- 
tion. It  is,  however,  much  more  apparent  in  the  rate  as  to  total 
number  of  criminal  convictions  than  in  anything  else,  and  much 
less  apparent  in  the  field  of  dependence  than  in  any  phase  of 
crime  or  delinquency.  There  is,  however,  no  clear  evidence 
of  correlation  with  number  of  defectives  admitted  to  institu- 
tions. Records  here  are  not  entirely  consistent  and  chance  may 
account  for  much  of  the  divergence  from  normal.  Distance  of 
many  of  the  counties  from  Oakdale  and  Glenwood  may  account 
in  part  for  the  absence  of  high  records  in  admissions  to  those  in- 
stitutions. 

In  many  of  these  twelve  counties,  however,  but  a  veiy  small 
proportion  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  mining.  It  is 
advisable  then  to  give  special  attention  to  those  in  whieli  the 
mining  population  is  clearly  an  important  factor.  In  three 
counties  in  the  State,  Appanoose,  Monroe,  and  Mahaska,  over 
five  per  cent  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  mining,  more  than 
fourteen  per  cent  in  Appanoose  and  Monroe.  There  is  no  city 
in  any  one  of  the  three  which  was  above  10,000  in  1910,  so  the 
factor  of  mining  conditions  is  fairly  well  isolated.  The  high 
rank  of  the  three  counties  in  rate  of  criminal  convictions  and  in 
cost  of  criminal  prosecution  is  at  once  seen  to  be  unusual.  In 
other  matters  the  high  rank  is  not  so  apparent.  To  set  forth 
the  facts  clearly,  the  ranks  for  the  three  counties  in  all  the  mat- 
ters considered  in  the  last  table  are  summed  up  and  compared 
with  the  normal  total  in  Table  XLII. 

TABLE  XLII 

Comparison  of  Total  Ranks  of  Three  Counties  with  Highest 
Per  Cent  of  Miners 

Series  eon)pared  Total  rank 

Normal  distribution  150 

Criminal  jirosecutions  24 

Criminal  convictions  15 

Penal  commitments  52 

Inebriate  hosjjital  commitments  106 

Industrial  school  commitments  70 

Juvenile  court  cases  85 

County  home  inmates  163 

Outdoor  relief  75 


122  UNIVERSITY  OF  lOAA^A  STUDIES 

Total  dependency  108 

Tuberculosis  hospital  admissions  228 

Inmates,   institution,   feeble-minded  191 

Inmates,  hospital,  insane  220 

From  this  table  it  is  apparent  that  the  three  counties  have  a 
rank  lower  than  normal  in  rate  of  count}'  home  inmates,  but 
a  higher  rank  in  every  other  table  dealing  with  criminality  or 
dependence.  In  every  phase  of  criminality  .and  in  outdoor 
relief  the  three  counties  clearly  have  rates  considerably  above 
the  normal,  but  it  is  far  more  apparent  in  the  cost  of  criminal 
prosecution,  and  in  the  total  number  of  criminal  convictions, 
than  in  anything  else.  This  would  indicate  that  a  more  than 
normal  proportion  of  criminal  offenses  are  of  a  minor  character. 
Yet  the  rate  for  penal  offenses  is  far  above  the  normal.  Rank 
in  admissions  to  all  t^'pes  of  institutions  for  defectives  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  abnormally  low. 

Despite  the  high  rank  of  Monroe  County  in  so  many  partic- 
ulars, such  conditions  would  seem  in  no  way  characteristic  of 
the  purely  agricultural  portion  of  that  county.  In  a  social  and 
economic  survey,  made  by  the  author,  of  a  purely  rural  and 
agricultural  township  in  this  county  in  1913,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  township  had  neither  constable  nor  justices  of  the  peace 
and  had  had  neither  for  years,  without  serious  inconvenience/'' 
The  only  case  of  outdoor  relief  at  the  time  was  that  of  a  miner 
living  on  the  border  of  the  township,  not  far  from  the  coal  mine 
in  the  next  township.  The  steward  of  the  county  home  re- 
ported that  there  had  never  been  any  one  in  the  county  home 
from  this  township  except  three  transients  who  had  drifted  in 
from  another  state  and  who  could  not  properly  be  considered 
residents  of  the  township.  Since  mining  and  agriculture  are 
the  chief  occupations  in  the  county,  this  strengthens  the  evi- 
dence already  given  as  to  the  correlation  between  a  high  per 
cent  of  mining  population  and  adverse  social  conditions.  In- 
teresting in  this  connection  is  the  statement  made  in  1916  by 
the  steward  of  the  county  home  of  Boone  County  that  the  in- 
mates of  the  home  were  "mainly  out  of  the  mining  camps  in 
and  about  Boone."  Our  Iowa  mining  camps  evidenly  offer 
serious  social  problems.     Whether  due  to  actual  industrial  eon- 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     123 

ditions  or  to  the  character  of  population  attracted  to  the  mines 
racially  and  otherwise,  the  figures  considered  do  not  show. 

There  is  present  in  the  mining  camps  a  considerable  foreign 
element  of  the  new  South  European  immigration  as  contrasted 
with  the  old.  North  European  immigration,  which  has  given 
the  State  most  of  its  foreign  population.  Of  the  three  counties 
just  considered,  28.6  per  cent  of  the  foreign  born  population 
of  Appanoose  County  in  1910  was  from  southern  and  eastern 
Europe,  19.3  per  cent  of  that  of  Monroe  County,  and  8.6  per 
cent  of  that  of  Mahaska  County,  as  contrasted  with  7.6  per  cent 
for  the  State  as  a  whole.  In  1905  the  per  cent  for  Mahaska 
County  was  14.87  as  contrasted  with  7.0  per  cent  for  the  State.''^ 
This  difference  in  racial  make-up  may  be  a  partial  explanation 
of  conditions.  The  comparatively  slight  tendency  to  criminality 
and  dependence  already  shown  to  be  characteristic  of  the  for- 
eign element  may  not  be  equally  true  of  these  new  strains. 

So  far  as  our  evidence  goes,  the  records  for  defectives  do  not 
parallel  records  for  criminality  and  dependence.  Mining  coun- 
ties with  records  in  the  latter  two  lines,  quite  noticeably  unfav- 
orable, show  no  similar  record  in  number  of  defectives  admitted 
into  institutions.  In  case  of  both  the  tuberculous  and  the  feeble- 
minded, this  might  be  explained  as  due  to  the  lack  of  proper 
appreciation  of  the  importance  of  institutional  care.  This  will 
hardly  account,  however,  for  the  low  record  of  admittances  to 
hospitals  for  the  insane,  since  there  is  reason  to  believe  the 
necessity  for  care  of  the  insane,  paralleled  by  a  proper  distribu- 
tion of  institutions  throughout  the  State,  eliminates  largely  the 
influence  of  this  element.  Yet  the  record  for  the  insane  cor- 
responds closely  with  that  for  the  tuberculous  and  the  feeble- 
minded. 

C.    CONSTRUCTIVE  SOCIAL  WORK  AND  SOCIAL 
INFECTION 

The  relation  between  constructive  social  work  and  social 
infection  is  much  more  difficult  to  measure  than  tlie  influence 
of  the  factors  hitherto  considered,  as  the  amount  of  constructive 
social  work  can  not  be  easily  reduced  to  a  statistical  basis,  and 
moreover  no  complete  and  recent  data  is  at  hand.  An  attempt, 
however,  has  been  made  to  show  what  work  has  been  done  in  the 


124  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

larger  cities  of  the  State  and  with  what  conditions  of  social  in- 
fection it  has  been  associated. 

In  1902,  there  were  in  Iowa  sixteen  cities  having  permanent 
charity  organization  societies.  By  1906  the  number  had  increased 
to  thirty-nine.  Of  this  number  only  eight,  Des  Moines,  Keokuk, 
Burlington,  Council  Bluffs,  Davenport,  Marshalltown,  Grinuell, 
and  Clinton,  had  a  paid  worker  for  either  full  or  part  time.  In 
the  Directory  of  Charity  Organization  Societies  for  January, 
1916,  only  seven  Iowa  cities  are  included,  Des  Moines,  Fort 
Dodge,  Grinnell,  Oskaloosa,  Ottumwa,  Sioux  City  and  Water- 
loo. This  list,  however,  is  not  complete;  Ames,  Burlington, 
Clarinda,  Clinton,  Davenport,  Vinton,  Estherville,  Keokuk  and 
Muscatine  should  be  included,  bringing  the  number  up  to  six- 
teen. In  addition,  six  have  paid  probation  officers.  Council 
Bluffs,  Sioux  City,  Davenport,  Dubuque,  Des  Moines  and  Cedar 
Rapids.*''' 

Of  the  places  mentioned  above,  Estherville  and  Vinton  had  a 
population  of  less  than  4000  in  1910.  No  data  in  regard  to  social 
conditions  in  these  places  is  available,  and  the  cities  are  so  small 
that  data  as  to  the  counties  in  which  they  are  located  would  be 
of  little  value.  Ames,  for  which  information  is  available  only 
since  1911  has  a  very  low  record  in  penal  and  industrial  school 
commitments,  but  a  very  high  one  for  inebriate  hospital  com- 
mitments. The  latter  may  be  evidence  not  of  abnormally  bad 
conditions,  but  of  a  vigorous  social  policy.  Story  County,  in 
which  Ames  is  situated,  ranks  forty-eighth  in  total  dependency, 
though  the  rank  in  outdoor  relief  is  high.  No  facts  as  to  Clar- 
inda are  available  for  the  j^eriod  since  1910,  but  of  the  forty- 
one  loAva  cities  it  ranks  eighth  in  penal  commitments,  thirty- 
second  in  inebriate  commitments,  and  twentieth  in  industrial 
school  commitments.  Page  County  ranks  sixty-third  in  total 
dependency. 

Grinnell  has  had  charity  organization  work  for  quite  a  long 
period.  Within  recent  years  a  tliorough  reorganization  has  been 
effected  and  a  close  cooperation  with  public  relief  agencies  ar- 
ranged. Grinnell  shows  no  noticeably  high  rates  of  commit- 
ments to  institutions  for  criminals  or  delinquents.  Poweshiek 
County,  however,  ranks  tenth  in  total  dependency,  this  high 
rank  being  due  to  the  very  high  rank  of  the  county  in  outdoor 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     125 

relief.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  the  figures  as  to  outdoor 
relief  cover  only  the  five  years  1909-1913,  and  so  are  not  suffi- 
ciently recent  to  allow  the  new  plan  of  organization  to  have 
clearly  demonstrated  itself.  Poweshiek  County  spent  .^510,058.67 
for  outdoor  relief  in  1911  and  $10,246.98  in  1912.  In  1913,  the 
first  year  in  which  the  secretary  of  the  charity  organization  so- 
ciety was  overseer  of  the  poor  in  Grinnell,  this  figure  dropped 
to  $8,855.97;  in  1914  it  dropped  to  $6,650.77.  In  1913  there 
was,  however,  no  decline  in  total  cost  of  poor  relief,  but  in  1914 
this  also  showed  a  decline  of  over  two  thousand  dollars.  Grin- 
nell and  Poweshiek  county,  alike,  show  very  high  rates  for  ad- 
misions  of  patients  to  the  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium.  This 
situation  may  quite  likely  be  due  to  the  influence  of  strong  social 
work  in  the  direction  of  general  appreciation  of  proper  care  of 
the  tuberculous.  Poweshiek  county  and  Grinnell  show  no  es- 
pecially high  records  in  feeble-mindedness  or  insanity. 

Muscatine,  with  her  peculiar  industrial  conditions  and  bad 
record  in  juvenile  delinquency,  has  no  paid  probation  officer 
and  her  charit}^  organization  is  of  very  recent  date.  Muscatine 
County  however  ranks  only  fifty-sixth  in  total  dependence. 
Neither  Muscatine  nor  Muscatine  County  rank  high  in  any  table 
for  defectives.  Keokuk  has  had  organized  charities  since  1897, 
but  there  is  no  paid  probation  officer.  The  city  ranks  twenty- 
second,  twelfth,  and  seventeenth  in  penal,  inebriate  hospital, 
and  industrial  school  commitments,  while  Lee  County  ranks 
fifty-sixth  in  total  dependence.  Rates  for  defectives  are  high. 
Keokuk  ranks  seventh,  eighteenth,  and  second  in  admissions  to 
State  institutions  for  the  tuberculous,  feeble-minded,  and  insane 
respectively.  Lee  County  ranks  fourteenth,  sixth,  and  first  in 
tubercular  hospital  admissions,  feeble-minded  institution  in- 
mates, and  insane  hospital  inmates  respectively. 

Clinton  has  had  charity  organization  for  some  time,  but  lit- 
tle evidence  is  available  as  to  its  character.  Dubuque  has  not 
had  organized  charity  for  some  years.  Both  Clinton  and  Du- 
buque show  bad  records  in  total  dependence,  Clinton  ranking 
fourth  and  Dubuque  fourteenth.  Clinton  County  has  fairly 
high  rank  in  tuberculous  admissions,  and  quite  high  in  insane 
hospital  inmates.    Dubuque  has  a  fairly  high  rate  for  juvenile 


126  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

court  cases  but  a  low  rate  of  industrial  school  commitments.  A 
truant  officer  was  employed  in  1911  and  paid  probation  officer 
first  in  1912,  hardly  long  enough  ago  to  have  affected  the  figures 
upon  which  this  study  is  based.  All  Dubuque  County  rates 
for  defectives  are  relatively  low,  that  for  insanity  being  highest, 
due  probably  to  the  presence  in  Dubuque  of  a  large  private  hos- 
pital for  the  insane.  Though  Davenport  has  had  organized 
charities  for  a  considerable  period  and  paid  probation  officers, 
Scott  County  ranks  twelfth  in  total  dependence  and  Davenport 
tenth  in  industrial  school  commitments.  Scott  County  ranks 
second  in  admissions  to  tuberculosis  hospitals  and  second  in 
inmates  of  hospitals  for  the  insane.  Evidently  considerable 
interest  is  taken  in  measures  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of 
tuberculosis,  since  a  large  county  tuberculosis  sanatorium  has 
been  established.  Davenport  contains  also  an  important  private 
hospital  for  the  insane. 

Ottumwa,  Oskaloosa,  and  Fort  Dodge  have  charity  organiza- 
tions, but  have  not  had  them  long  enough  for  the  figures  of 
this  study  to  be  influenced  by  them.  No  one  of  these  cities  has 
a  paid  probation  officer.  Both  Ottumwa  and  Oskaloosa  have 
bad  records  in  penal  and  industrial  school  commitments.  Wap- 
ello county,  which  contains  Ottumwa,  has  the  worst  record  in 
the  State  in  total  dependence.  Both  county  and  city  have  high 
rates  in  admissions  to  and  inmates  of  institutions  for  the  tuber- 
culous and  feeble  minded.  A  relatively  high  per  cent  of  the 
insane  seem  to  be  kept  in  the  county  home,  a  factor  in  explain- 
ing the  dependence  rate.  Mahaska  and  Webster  counties,  con- 
taining Oskaloosa  and  Fort  Dodge  respectively,  both  come  with- 
in the  first  twenty  counties  in  total  dependence.  Oskaloosa  has 
a  fairly  high  rank  in  tuberculous  and  insanity  tables.  Webster 
county  has  an  abnormally  low  record  for  inmates  of  institutions 
for  the  feeble-minded. 

Though  Burlington's  present  cliarity  organization  is  quite 
young,  it  was  preceded  by  similar  work  dating  back  to  1891. 
The  police  matron  does  much  of  the  work  of  a  probation  officer. 
The  city  and  county  have  good  records  in  nearly  all  phases  of 
criminality  and  dependence.  The  county  ranks  twenty-sixth  in 
total  dependence,  due  partly  to  a  very  high  rate  for  county 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     127 

home  inmates;  the  city  ranks  very  low  in  mebriate  hospital  and 
industrial  school  commitments.  The  conservativeness  of  the 
judges  is  said  to  be  a  factor.  The  county  ranks  high  in  all 
tables  dealing  with  defectives,  being  sixth  in  inmates  of  hospi- 
tals for  the  insane.  The  large  number  of  insane,  a  relatively 
high  proportion  of  whom  are  kept  in  the  county  home,  accounts 
in  part  for  the  high  rank  in  county  home  inmates. 

Council  Bluffs  has  a  society  doing  work  approaching  that  of 
true  organized  charities,  and  also  a  paid  probation  officer.  The 
dependence  rank  of  the  county,  thirty-seventh  is  fairly  low. 
Ranks  in  all  tables  for  defectives  for  both  Council  Bluffs  and 
Pottawattamie  county  are  low.  The  rank  in  admissions  to  in- 
stitutions for  the  feeble-minded  is  highest,  due  no  doubt  to 
proximity  to  the  state  institution  at  Glenwood. 

Waterloo  has  had  a  Social  Welfare  League  since  1907,  which 
has  sought  to  do  not  merely  relief  work  but  constructive  social 
work  along  all  lines.  Waterloo  and  Black  Hawk  county  have 
shown  good  records  in  most  respects.  The  city  has  a  low  rank  in 
industrial  school  commitments  and  the  county  has  a  fairly  low 
one,  thirty-sixth  in  total  dependence. 

Cedar  Rapids  has  had  a  paid  probation  officer  since  1909  but 
has  only  recently  organized  its  charities.  The  city  shows  a  bad 
record  for  commitments  of  all  kinds  and  for  juvenile  court 
eases.  It  has  been  suggested  by  one  in  touch  with  the  situation 
that  boys  are  sometimes  committed  to  the  industrial  school  upon 
too  slight  provocation.  The  county,  Linn,  ranks  sixteenth  in  to- 
tal dependence.  Rate  of  tubercular  hospital  admissions  is  very 
high,  owing  to  close  proximity  to  the  State  Sanatorium.  Other 
rates  for  defectives  are  low  except  that  of  insane  from  Cedar 
Rapids  itself. 

Sioux  City  has  had  a  Charity  Bureau  and  paid  probation  offi- 
cers since  1910.  Constructive  social  work  is  well  organized, 
centering  around  the  Charity  Bureau  and  tlie  juvenile  court. 
For  the  last  five  years  a  progressive  educational  policy  has  been 
followed  by  tlie  public  schools.  Though  second  in  size,  the  city 
is  sixteenth  in  rate  of  industrial  school  commitments.  Tlie 
county,  Woodbury,  ranks  sixty-sixtli  in  total  dependence.  Rank 
in  all  tables  for  tlie  tuberculous  and  f<'e]>l('-iuiiide(l  ar»'  fairly 
high,  in  those  for  the  insane  fairly  low. 


128  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

Des  Moines  has  had  efficient  charity  organization  since  1891 
and  had  paid  probation  officers  and  a  juvenile  home  since  1910. 
The  city,  however  is  so  much  larger  than  any  other  in  the  State 
as  to  stand  almost  in  a  class  by  itself.  The  city  shows  a  very 
bad  record  in  all  phases  of  delinquency  studied.  Its  record  is 
better  for  dependency.  The  county,  Polk,  ranks  thirty-first  in 
total  dependence.  The  city  and  county  show  relatively  high 
rank  for  admissions  of  defectives  to  State  institutions,  but  not 
especially  high  rank  in  total  number  of  feeble-minded  and  in 
sane  in  all  institutions. 

There  would  seem  to  be  a  real  correlation  between  the  lack  of 
proper  social  work  and  records  in  criminality  and  dependence. 
Des  Moines,  because  of  its  size,  offers  exceptional  conditions,  but 
its  one  low  record  is  along  the  line  most  directly  covered  by  its 
leading  social  organization.  The  cities,  which  have  the  worst 
average  conditions  next  to  Des  Moines,  Cedar  Rapids,  Ottumwa, 
Oskaloosa,  and  Marshalltown — either  have  no  adequate  organi- 
zations or  very  recent  ones.  A  number  of  the  larger  cities, 
notably  Waterloo  and  Burlington  and  to  a  lesser  degree  Sioux 
City,  with  eifective  social  organizations  show  better  records  than 
smaller  cities  without  them.  While  its  influence  can  not  be  ac- 
curately measured,  constructive  social  work  is  assuredly  an  im- 
portant factor  in  checking  and  eliminating  criminality  and  de- 
pendence.'''' 

With  regard  to  defectives  the  case  is  not  so  clear.  So  far  as 
the  tuberculous  are  concerned,  and  perhaps  to  a  less  degree  the 
feeble-minded,  there  seems  to  be  a  correlation  between  efficient 
social  work  and  admissions  to  institutions.  Records  of  Grinnell 
and  Des  Moines,  possibly  of  Davenport,  Sioux  City,  and  Burl- 
ington, uphold  this  conclusion.  There  is  no  evidence  that  social 
work  has  as  yet  been  able  to  reduce  the  per  cent  of  defectives  in 
the  population.  Rates  of  the  large  cities  are  in  general  compar- 
atively lower  for  defectives,  than  for  delinquents  and  depend- 
ents. As  noted  in  the  stud}'  of  mining  town  conditions,  records 
for  defectives  do  not  parallel  at  all  closely  those  for  dependents 
and  delinquents.  The  social  causes  producing  defectives  prob- 
ably lie  deeper  than  those  producing  delinquents  and  depend- 
ents and  results  from  changes  in  conditions  do  not  show  them- 
selves so  soon. 


VIII 

THE  RESULTS  AND  THEIR  SOCIAL 

SIGNIFICANCE 

A.  SmniARY  OF  RESULTS 
In  the  foregoing  chapters  statistical  tables  have  been  pre- 
sented, showing  the  criminality,  inebriety,  juvenile  delinquency, 
dependence,  tuberculosis,  feeble-mindedness,  and  insanity,  ex- 
isting in  the  various  counties  and  cities  of  the  State  so  far  as 
these  conditions  can  be  shown  from  available  data.  Some  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  analyze  these  tables  and  to  show  the 
correlation  between  these  figures  and  certain  circumstances 
which  may  have  an  important  influence  upon  social  health.  An 
attempt  will  be  made  in  tliis  cliapter  to  summarize  briefly  the 
phenomena  noted. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  CONCENTRATION  OF  POPULATION 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  in  this  study  to  the 
evidence  as  to  the  correlation  or  lack  of  correlation  existing  be- 
tween the  concentration  of  population  in  towns  and  cities  and 
the  amount  of  social  infection.  Different  lines  of  approach 
were  followed,  which  gave  evidence  of  the  existence  of  some  cor- 
relation, which,  however,  varied  considerably  in  degree  accord- 
ing to  the  phase  of  social  infection  under  consideration.  The 
method  whereby  the  degree  of  correlation  for  the  various  social 
problems  studied  can  be  most  conciseh^  stated  is  that  of  the  use 
of  coefficients  of  correlation,  which  liave  been  calculated  aeco7*d- 
ing  to  Spearman's  so-called  "foot-rule"  measure  of  correlation. 
The  degree  of  correlation  in  the  various  tables  already  given  is 
shov.'n  in  this  v.'av  in  the  following  table. 


(129) 


130  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

TABLE  XLIII 

Counties — Degree  of  Correlation  with  Per  Cent  of  Urban  Population 


Coefficient  of 

Rate  correlated 

correlation 

Probable  error 

Cost  criminal  prosecution 

.207 

.043 

Rate   criminal   convictions 

.233 

.043 

Penal  commitments 

.390 

.043 

Inebriate  commitments 

.153 

.043 

Industrial   school   commitments 

.314 

.043 

Juvenile   court   cases 

.301 

.043 

Juvenile  delinquency 

.228 

.043 

County  home  population 

.042 

.043 

Outdoor  relief 

.248 

.043 

Total  dependence 

.169 

.043 

Tubercular   hospital   admissions 

.185 

.043 

Inmates,  institutions  feeble-minded        .076 

.043 

Inmates,  hospital  insane,  total 

.132 

.043 

Inmates,  hospital  insane,  males 

.074 

.043 

Inmates,  hospital  insane,  female.'- 

.17o 

.043 

Cities  over  4000 — Correlation  of  Rank  With  Size  of  Population 

Coefficient  of 

Rate  compared 

Correlation 

Probable  error 

Penal 

.118 

.067 

Inebriates 

.168 

.067 

Industrial 

.207 

.067 

Tuberculosis 

.193 

.067 

Feeble-minded,  state  institution 

.007 

.067 

Insane,  state  institutions 

None 

None 

The  fact  of  correlation  between  delinquency  and  dependence 
and  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  population  in  towns  and 
cities  seems  clearly  established.  Only  in  two  instances  is  the  co- 
efficient so  low  as  to  warrant  any  doubt  of  the  reality  of  the 
correlation,  in  the  case  of  county  home  population  and  in  the 
case  of  penal  rate  for  cities  above  4000.  In  this  connection  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  rate  of  county  home  population  is  de- 
pendent quite  as  much  upon  the  local  policy  of  outdoor  relief  as 
upon  the  degree  of  dependency.  In  regard  to  the  statistics  of 
criminality,  the  evidence  wotdd  indicate  that  criminal  offenses 
tend  to  be  of  a  more  serious  character  in  urban  than  in  rural 
districts,  the  coefficient  of  correlation  being  markedly  higher 
for  the  penal  rate  than  for  total  criminal  convictions.  For 
cities  above  4000,  however,  the  penal  rate  is  but  slightly  corre- 
lated with  the  size  of  the  city. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     181 

Inebriate  commitments  seem  to  be  less  closely  correlated  ->  ith 
the  per  cent  of  urban  population  than  any  of  the  other  phenom- 
ena of  delinquency  studied.  The  exact  significance  of  this  fact 
is  difficult  to  state.  The  open  country  certainly  does  not  pre- 
sent tlie  temptation  to  drink  that  the  town  presents. 

While  not  quite  so  high  as  that  for  penal  commitments,  the 
coefficients  for  juvenile  court  cases  indicate  a  distinct  corre- 
lation. The  rates  in  cities  would  indicate  also  a  greater  tendency 
for  the  rate  to  increase  with  the  size  of  the  city  than  is  true 
either  of  penal  commitments  or  of  inebriate  commitments. 

The  low  degree  of  correlation  between  the  county  home  popula- 
tion and  the  per  cent  of  urban  population  has  alread}^  been  noted. 
The  coefficient  is  much  higher  for  outdoor  relief,  though  still  not 
very  high.  The  third  coefficient  as  to  dependence,  that  for  the 
table  formed  by  combining  the  ranks  of  the  two  primary  tables 
on  dependence,  shows  clearly  the  existence  of  correlation,  though 
not  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  in  the  case  of  inebriate  com- 
mitments. Greater  provision  in  towns  and  cities  for  voluntary 
charity  may  be  an  explanation.  Of  the  various  social  phenomena 
studied,  juvenile  delinquency  seems  most  closely  correlated  to 
concentration  in  population,  criminality  next,  especially  in  its 
more  serious  forms,  while  dependence  and  inebriety  are  much 
less  closely  correlated.  As  noted  already,  records  for  defectives 
do  not  parallel  those  for  delinquents  and  dependents  very  close- 
ly. There  is,  however,  a  quite  parallel  correlation  between  ad- 
missions to  the  tubercular  hospitals  and  concentration  of  popula- 
tion, both  for  counties  and  cities.  This  may  indicate  more 
intelligence  in  cities  in  regard  to  the  importance  of  care  for  the 
tuberculous,  rather  than  larger  proportionate  numbers  of  tuber- 
culous. Correlation  between  the  number  of  feeble-minded  in 
institutions  and  concentration  of  population  in  urban  communi- 
ties is  low  for  the  counties.  Correlation  with  size  of  cities  is 
really  non-existent.  For  the  insane,  results  are  parallel  except 
for  the  higher  rate  of  correlation  with  urban  per  cent  of  popula- 
tion. Females  show  this  much  more  markedly  than  males.  Table 
XLIV  summarizes  the  evidence  given  in  earlier  tables  in  regard 
to  social  infection  and  its  relation  to  distribution  of  population. 


132 


UNIVERSITY  OP  IOWA  STUDIES 


TABLE  XLIV7' 

Rural  and  Urban  Comparison 


So 


ural    or    urban 
division 

No.  ])enal 
ments    per 
population 

Country 

Villages  and  towns 

.22 
1.31 

Towns  2000-4000 

2.13 

Towns  4000-8000 

1.32 

Cities  8000-25,000 

1.58 

Cities  25,000  over 

1.79 

pj  •    o 


,,    0^    ^ 


O)    g  O 

;:    o  c 


.268 
.852 
1.977 
1.858 
2.330 
2.100 


-«  S  o 
<^  +3  a, 
oa  .-.    '— ' 

C 
_•   "  O 
'T    c  O 

Ceo 

.0072 

.606 

.041 
1.002 
1.360 
1.420 


<D 


g    fc.   03 

O    "^  "^ 
^      ao    O 

5  S  <=> 

a.9s 


.92 
1.72 
2.61 

.48 

1.74 


0  2 
«j  .1-* 


O4  a 


0 

0) 

i     §, 

5 

.2  X.2 
=«  2  "S 

to 

J2 

a 

'e  §. 

'^ 

a  2 

•■'-  .•§  -^ 

3 

0 

S  'S<  5 

q    0    S 

H 

11 

S 

03  0 

£ 

.0 

2  EC  0- 
■^2  2 

•S  .a  CI, 
0 

01 

2 

0  '^ 

3 

§  "So 

c3 

cc     t.. 

0 

■+3  »-, 

CJ 

"S  '- 

IT3    H  c; 

cc    3  0 

-M    0    OJ 

CO  -c  &I 

S  0 

<j<    03  0 

a  0  0 
1— 1  t)  (— ( 

Country 

.54 

.32 

.30 

1.85 

.58 

Villages  and  towns 

1.25 

.84 

.28 

5.89 

.37 

Towns  2000-4000 

1.38 

.70 

22 

5.29 

.67 

Towns  4000-8000 

1.07 

.68 

.38 

4.16 

.32 

Cities   8000-25,000 

2.44 

.85 

.31 

4.96 

.64 

Cities  25,000  over 

1.71 

.71 

.04 

4.14 

1.01 

The  great  contrast  betvceen  the  rates  for  the  country  and  those 
for  even  the  smallest  towns  and  villages  is  especially  noteworthy. 
It  is  clear  that  in  their  social  problems  the  small  town  and  village 
belong  with  the  city  rather  than  with  the  rural  districts,  though 
in  some  respects  such  communities  represent  a  sort  of  middle 
ground.  Of  the  three  columns  of  this  table  dealing  with  delin- 
quents, that  giving  data  as  to  industrial  school  commitments  is 
undoubtedly  of  most  striking  interest.  The  increase  in  rate  is 
correlated  closely  with  the  increase  in  size  of  the  urban  communi- 
ties as  is  true  of  neither  of  the  penal  rate  nor  the  inebriate  com- 
mitment rate,  both  of  which  show  considerable  irregularities. 
The  almost  infinitesimal  rate  of  commitments  to  the  industrial 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     133 

school  from  the  country  is  most  marked,  it  being  about  one 
eightieth  the  rate  for  villages  and  towns,  as  contrasted  with  about 
one  sixth,  and  a  little  less  than  one  third,  in  case  of  the  penal  and 
inebriate  commitment  rates  respectively.  Villages  and  small 
towns  sliovr  a  comparatively  \ow  rate  of  inebriate  commitments. 
The  rate  for  the  country  is  also  somewhat  smaller  propoi-tion- 
ately  than  is  the  country  penal  rate.  The  low  degree  of  correla- 
tion between  inebriate  commitments  and  urban  population-  can 
not  then  be  interpreted  as  meaning  a  comparatively  liigh  rural 
rate.  The  small  number  of  cities  in  the  higher  population  groups 
may  account  for  some  of  the  irregularities,  it  being  a  result  mere- 
ly of  chance  variation,  but  this  could  hardly  explain  the  higher 
penal  and  inebriate  commitment  rates  for  towns  just  under  4000 
than  for  those  just  above. 

The  column  on  county  home  inmates,  though  covering  only  a 
little  over  an  eighth  of  the  State's  population  would  seem  I'ep- 
resentative  and  shows  fluctuations  in  rates  paralleling  fairly 
closely  those  for  delinquents.  The  rural  rate  is  low.  The  village 
rate  is  high. 

In  this  table  records  in  regard  to  defectives  in  general  parallel 
those  for  delinquents.  For  all  State  institutions  the  open  country 
has  a  rate  much  below  that  of  any  urban  division.  The  records 
for  county  home  inmates  do  not  show  this  but  these  contain  so 
much  smaller  proportion  of  the  feeble-minded  and  insane  that 
they  cannot  counterbalance  the  record  of  the  open  country  in 
admissions  to  State  institutions.  As  in  the  columns  for  penal  and 
inebriate  hospital  commitments,  rates  do  not  increase  regularly 
as  size  of  the  urban  center  increases.  Records  foi-  admissions  to 
State  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded  and  more  markedly  for 
the  insane  show  serious  problems  in  the  villages  aiul  towns  under 
2000.  For  insanity,  conditions  seem  bad  in  towns  2000-4000. 
Cities  8000-25,000  show  serious  records  in  both  feeble-mindedness 
and  insanity. 

In  connection  with  this  table  attention  sliould  be  called  to  the 
contrast  between  the  records  of  males  and  of  females  in  refer- 
ence to  rural  and  urban  residience  of  those  admitted  to  the  hos- 
pitals for  the  insane.  The  data  on  the  point  is  summarized  by 
Table  XLV. 


134  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

TABLE  XhV 


Rural  and  Urban  Comparison,  Admissions  to  State  Hospitals  for 
Insane,  1909-1916 


Rural  or  urban 

Admissions 

to 

State 

Hospital 

fo 

•  Insar 

division 

per  1000 

population 

Males 

Females 

Total 

Country 

1.24 

.61 

1.85 

Villages  and  towns 

3.20 

2.69 

5.89 

Towns   2000-4000 

2.81 

2.48 

5.29 

Towns  4000-8000 

2.30 

1.86 

4.16 

Cities  8000-25,000 

2.86 

2.10 

4.96 

Cities  25,000  and  over 

2.29 

1.85 

4.14 

There  is  little  necessity  for  comment  upon  this  table  as  its 
meaning  is  clear.  A  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  insane  are 
women,  for  the  open  country,  than  for  any  urban  division.  For 
the  open  country  the  rate  for  females  is  less  than  half  that  for 
men.  For  every  urban  division  it  is  approximately  three-fourths 
or  more.  To  be  sure,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  records  for  county 
homes  would  counterbalance  this  in  a  measure  but  only  partially. 
Iowa  women  in  the  open  country  liave  lower  proportional  rates 
of  insanity  than  the  women  of  any  urban  division.  This  is  borne 
out  by  the  contrasts  between  the  records  of  men  and  of  women  in 
the  county  tables,  which  include  data  from  county  and  private  as 
well  as  State  institutions.  The  coefficient  of  correlation  of  coun- 
ty rank  in  urban  per  cent  with  rank  in  rate  of  insanity  among 
women  is  .173,  that  with  rank  in  rate  for  men  only  .074. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  PROXIMITY  TO  STATE 
INSTITUTIONS  FOR  DEFECTIVES 
The  tables  for  tuberculous  and  feeble-minded  seem  records 
of  the  measure  of  care  taken  of  the  unfortunate  quite  as  much 
as  of  the  seriousness  of  the  problem  in  the  various  communities. 
Of  much  interest  then  is  the  correlation  between  rates  of  admis- 
sion of  patients  of  institutions  with  the  proximity  of  the  county 
of  residence  to  the  institution.  Of  the  twenty  counties  with 
highest  rate  of  admissions  to  Oakdale,  nine  as  contrasted  with 
a  normal  three  come  from  fifteen  counties,  either  containing  in- 
stitutions, or  located  in  a  relatively  small  group  of  counties 
immediately  surrounding  the  State  Sanatorium  and  one  county 
institution.     Four  other  counties   within  the  first  twenty  are 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     135 

relatively  quite  near  the  State  Sanatorium  or  are  quite  accessible 
to  it  through  direct  railway  connections.  The  State  institution 
for  care  of  the  feebleminded  is  located  near  the  southwest  corner 
of  the  State.  Of  the  twenty  counties  with  highest  rates  of  admis- 
sions to  it,  thirteen  of  them  instead  of  a  normal  four,  are  among 
the  twenty-one  counties  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  section  of  the 
state  west  of  the  middle  of  the  southern  boundary  and  south  of 
the  middle  of  the  western.  Influence  of  proximity  upon  the  use 
made  of  State  hospitals  for  insane  is  not  so  marked,  though 
there  is  some  evidence  of  it.  Two  of  the  four  counties  contain- 
ing State  hospitals  rank  quite  high  in  rate  of  inmates,  fourth 
and  seventh  respectively,  a  third  has  the  rank  of  twenty-first 
and  the  fourth  is  forty-eighth.  All  four  are  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  counties  in  rate  of  inmates.  Seven,  instead  of  a  nor- 
mal six  of  the  thirty  counties  nearest  the  institutions,  come 
within  the  first  twenty  in  rate  of  inmates,  ten  instead  of  a  nor- 
mal seven  or  eight  in  the  first  twenty-five. 

INFLUENCE  OF  RACIAL  DIFFERENCE 
Race  has  been  shown  to  offer  no  explanation  of  the  phenomena 
noted  as  to  crime,  except  perhaps  in  the  few  mining  counties. 
The  counties  with  the  largest  per  cent  of  thei)-  inhabitants  of 
foreign  birth  or  parentage  have  less  than  their  proportionate 
share  of  crime,  inebriate  commitments  and  juvenjle  delin- 
quency. These  counties  show  a  higher  rank  of  inebriate  com- 
mitments than  in  any  other  phase  of  delinquency  or  dependence, 
but  even  this  is  below  the  average.  The  records  of  these 
counties  in  defectives  likewise  show  little  variation  from  the 
normal.  The  explanation  probably  lies  in  the  fact  tliat  Iowa's 
foreign  element  is  so  largely  of  the  north-European  races,  92.3 
per  cent  of  the  foreign  born  in  1910  being  from  Canada  or  north 
Europe.  j\Iost  of  the  foreign  born,  moreover,  have  been  here 
many  years.  Mining  communities,  some  at  least  of  which  con- 
tain a  considerable  element  of  the  newer  soutli-Europcan  immi- 
gration, show  higher  rates  than  normal,  but  industrial  condi- 
tions rather  than  racial  are  probably  responsible. 


136  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS 

There  seems  to  be  no  evidence  of  correlation  between  manu- 
facturing and  bad  social  conditions.  For  the  cities  of  the  State 
with  a  population  of  10,000  or  more,  there  is  no  correlation 
whatever  between  the  per  cent  of  the  population  engaged  in 
industrial  pursuits  and  the  rates  of  cities  in  penal,  industrial 
school  and  inebriate  hospital  commitments  or  in  admissions  to 
institutions  for  defectives.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  clear 
evidence  of  correlation  between  child  labor  and  industrial 
school  commitments.  For  all  the  cities  covered  the  coefficient 
of  correlation  discovered  was  .1875.  Two  cities,  Burlington  and 
Dubuque,  seem  to  present  abnormal  conditions.  With  these 
cities  omitted,  the  coefficient  of  correlation  rises  to  .41.  ]\Iusca- 
tine  with  more  child  laborers  in  absolute  numbers  than  any 
other  city  in  the  State  has  an  abnormally  liigh  rate  of  industrial 
commitments  for  a  city  of  its  size. 

^Mining  counties  show  an  unusually  high  rank  in  practically 
all  phases  of  social  infection.  This  is  least  apparent  in  the  sta- 
tistics as  to  inmates  of  the  county  homes  and  most  apparent  in 
those  as  to  total  number  of  criminal  convictions.  The  natuial 
inference  is  that  mining  camps  present  serious  social  problems 
along  all  lines,  but  are  especially  notable  for  the  number  of 
minor  criminal  offenses.  Evidence  as  to  the  racial  composition 
of  these  communities  shows  them  to  contain  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  foreigners  of  the  new  south-European  immigration,  a  far 
higher  proportion  than  that  for  the  State  as  a  whole. 

RECORDS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTIES,  DEPENDENTS 
AND  DELINQUENTS 

The  summarizing  of  the  results  obtained  in  regard  to  specific 
counties  presents  more  serious  difficulties,  owing  to  the  large 
number  of  counties  and  the  numerous  lines  of  inquiry.  More- 
over, records  in  regard  to  defectives  do  not  parallel  those  for 
delinquents  and  dependents  closely  enough  for  it  to  seem  advis- 
able to  summarize  the  results  for  defectives  in  the  same  tables 
as  those  for  delinquents  and  dependents.  The  results  for  the 
latter  will  first  be  summarized  and  later  those  for  the  former, 
after  which  comparisons  will  be  made.  An  attempt  to  show  the 
results  for  dependents  and  delinquents  in   a  tabular  form   is 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     137 

made  in  the  following  table  in  which  are  considered  all  counties 
coming  within  the  first  twenty  in  any  of  the  seven  tables  show- 
ing expenses  of  criminal  prosecution,  criminal  convictions, 
penal  commitments,  inebriate  hospital  commitments,  industrial 
school  commitments,  juvenile  court  cases,  and  total  dependents. 
The  seven  tables  are  classified  under  the  four  heads  of  crimin- 
ality, inebriate  commitments,  juvenile  offenses,  and  dependence. 
Then  there  is  shown  in  tabular  form  the  number  and  character 
of  the  tables  in  which  each  county  is  found  within  the  first 
twenty.  The  maximum  number  of  times  a  county  could  be 
found  in  the  first  twenty  is  of  course  seven. 

TABLE  XLVI73 

Comparative  Table  of  Iowa  Counties  Coming  within  the  First  Twenty 
in  Important  Tables 


^Z  ^^^'-s  ^^-S     ^^     ':s°  ^ 

c"k  •"  =  «     -e3.2     -^^0:^2     -^tcfl 

■|:2  S -^^  ^      S    .          B    ..>■      S    -g^ 

County  ^-g  g^-g  E^ocg      ^o^      --o* 

Maximum  possible  7               3  12  1 

1.  Mahaska  7               3  12  1 

2.  Linn  7               3  12  1 

3.  Polk  6               3  12 

4.  Wapello  6               3  111 

5.  Lee  5               2  12 

6.  Woodbury  5               2  12 

7.  Scott  5               2  2  1 

8.  Lucas  4               3  1 

9.  Marshall  4               2  2 

10.  Monroe  4                3  1 

11.  Cerro  Gordo  4               3  1 

12.  Pottawattamie  4               2  2 

13.  Clinton  4               1  2  1 

14.  Jones  4               3  1 

15.  Clarke  3               1  2 

16.  Appanoose  3               2  1 

17.  Dubuque  3               1  11 

18.  Winneshiek  2                1  1 

19.  Madison  2               2 

20.  Des  Moines  2               2 


138 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


21. 

Clayton 

22. 

Adams 

23. 

Montgomery 

24. 

Chickasaw 

25. 

Union 

26. 

Wayne 

27. 

Black   Hawk 

28. 

Muscatine 

29. 

Harrison 

30. 

Webster 

31. 

Johnson 

32. 

Poweshiek 

33. 

Page 

34. 

Benton 

35. 

Marion 

36. 

Cass 

37. 

Taylor 

38. 

Emmet 

39. 

Mills 

40. 

Fremont 

41. 

Osceola 

42. 

Hardin 

43. 

Cherokee 

44. 

Palo  Alto 

45. 

CarroU 

46. 

Sac 

47. 

Fayette 

48. 

Hamilton 

49. 

Story 

50. 

Jefferson 

51. 

Dickinson 

52. 

Decatur 

53. 

Ringgold 

54. 

Buchanan 

55. 

Cedar 

56. 

Boone 

57. 

Van  Buren 

58. 

Henry 

59. 

Jackson 

60. 

Tama 

61. 

Delaware 

62. 

Washington 

63. 

Davis 

64. 

Crawford 

2  11 

2  1  1 

2  1  1 

2  11 

2  1  1 

2  11 

2  11 
2  2 

2  2 

2  11 

2  11 

2  11 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 
1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 


Two  counties,  Mahaska  and  Linn,  will  be  at  once  seen  to  have 
the  maximum  record,  two  others  appear  in  the  first  twenty  in 
six  tables,  three  in  five  tables,  seven  in  four  tables,  three  in  three 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     139 

tables,  fifteen  in  two  ta])les  and  thirty-two  or  half  the  number  in 
but  one  table. 

Further  consideration  will  be  given  to  the  seventeen  ranking 
in  the  first  twenty  in  three  or  more  tables.  Since  sixty-four  out 
of  a  possible  ninety-nine  counties  occur  at  least  once  among  the 
first  twenty  counties,  the  occurence  of  a  county  within  the  first 
twenty  once,  or  posibly  even  twice,  may  not  indicate  a  serious 
social  condition,  unless  the  rank  of  the  county  within  the  twenty 
is  high,  as  in  the  case  of  Mills  County,  which  ranks  second  in 
rate  of  penal  commitments.  Its  close  proximity  to  the  large 
cities  of  Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha,  has  been  suggested  as  a 
possible  explanation.  Pottawattamie  County  adjoining,  and 
containing  Council  Bluffs,  ranks  third  in  the  same  table. 
Emmet  County  has  a  very  high  cost  of  criminal  prosecution. 
Poweshiek  County  ties  for  tenth  place  in  dependence.  Jack- 
son and  Tama  tie  for  eighth  in  the  same  table.  Cedar,  Boone, 
Van  Buren,  and  Henry  counties  come  within  the  first  six 
counties  in  dependence,  though  not  occuring  within  the  first 
twenty  in  any  other  table.  Johnson  County,  though  not  sho\\'- 
ing  a  bad  record  in  any  other  respect,  ranks  seventh  in  depend- 
ence and  fourteenth  in  inebriate  commitments.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  noted  that  Johnson  County  had  saloons  till 
December,  1910,  and  the  county  seat,  Iowa  City,  until  Decem- 
ber, 1915.  The  policy  followed  by  the  local  judge  was  also  a 
factor  in  the  situation.  Webster  County  shows  a  bad  record 
only  in  inebriate  commitments  in  winch  it  ranks  fifth.  Its 
county  seat,  Ft.  Dodge,  is  an  industrial  city  of  importance,  and 
there  are  both  coal  and  gypsum  mines  in  the  vicinity.  AVaync 
County,  ranking  seventh  in  inebriate  commitments,  is  a  border 
county  of  the  coal  mining  area. 

More  difficult  to  explain  is  the  record  of  Winneshiek  County, 
which  ranks  third,  and  of  Palo  Alto,  Carroll,  Chickasaw,  Sac, 
and  Fayette,  ranking  sixth,  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth 
respectively,  as  these  contain  no  city  of  importance.  Remark- 
able is  the  record  of  Black  Hawk  County  which,  despite  the 
presen<;e  of  the  large  city  of  Waterloo,  ranks  noticeably  high  in 
no  table  except  that  as  to  total  number  of  juvenile  court  cases 
in  which  it  is  fifth.     In  inebriate  commitments  it  is  fifteenth. 


140  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

Harrison  County  has  a  poor  record  in  regard  to  juvenile  offenses, 
being  eleventh  both  in  industrial  school  commitments  and  in 
total  number  of  cases  before  the  juvenile  court.  A  similar  situ- 
ation exists  in  Muscatine  County,  save  that  the  latter  ranks  con- 
siderably higher,  third  in  industrial  school  commitments  and 
sixth  in  number  of  cases  before  the  juvenile  court.  Ringgold 
County  ranks  tenth  in  number  of  juvenile  court  cases.  Cherokee, 
Madison,  Adams,  Page,  and  Benton  rank  third,  seventh,  eighth, 
ninth,  and  eleventh  respectively  in  number  of  criminal  convic- 
tions in  proportion  to  population.  Their  record,  however,  is  not 
accompanied  by  a  high  record  in  penal  commitments.  There 
must  be  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  minor  offenses  com- 
mitted in  these  counties.  Chickasaw  and  Union  rank  eighth  and 
tenth  respectively.  The  low  record  of  Des  Moines  County 
though  containing  the  city  of  Burlington,  is  worthy  of  note. 
Twelfth  in  rate  of  penal  commitments  and  fifteenth  in  per  cap- 
ita cost  of  criminal  convictions  are  its  worst  records. 

The  last  table  did  not  show  the  rank  of  individual  counties 
within  the  first  twenty.  The  following  table  attempts  to  show 
the  actual  rank  in  all  phases  for  the  seventeen  counties  falling 
within  the  first  twenty  in  three  or  more  of  the  tables  considered. 

TABLE  XLVII^^ 

Comparative  Table,  Seventeen  Counties  in  First  Twenty  Counties  in  Three 
or  More  Tables;  Bank  in  Eepresentative  Tables 


«t) 


So 

T3  IM 

13 

o 

(-< 
*-> 

a 
IS -2 

E 

^  s 

o 

Si 

a 

mty 

a 
1 

1 

5§ 

-(J 

a  p 

t-H     ^ 

c    O 

M     o 

'a 
> 

o 

Mahaska 

7 

5 

6 

7 

16 

5 

9 

18 

Linn 

7 

14 

12 

4 

4 

6 

2 

16 

Polk 

6 

12 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

31 

Wapello 

6 

13 

10 

5 

2 

2 

63 

1 

Lee 

5 

3 

48 

15 

8 

8 

17 

56 

Woodbury 

5 

59 

17 

6 

13 

9 

4 

66 

Scott 

5 

6 

25 

9 

35 

19 

3 

12 

Lucas 

4 

7 

2 

17 

28 

17 

29 

24 

Marshall 

4 

8 

39 

19 

22 

7 

12 

48 

Monroe 

4 

9 

4 

11 

58 

16 

58 

57 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     141 


Cerro   Gordo 

4 

16 

14 

16 

42 

27 

15 

21 

Pottawattamie 

4 

32 

13 

3 

25 

10 

7 

37 

Clinton 

4 

4 

49 

33 

75 

4 

14 

4 

Jones 

4 

20 

15 

13 

73 

42 

26 

10 

Clarke 

3 

61 

26 

14 

76 

15 

16 

86 

Appanoose 

3 

10 

5 

34 

32 

49 

18 

33 

Dubnque 

3 

19 

57 

37 

77 

36 

8 

14 

Of  the  seventeen  counties  in  this  table,  eight  contain  cities 
above  twenty  thousand,  i.  e.,  Linn,  Polk,  Wapello,  Woodbury, 
Scott,  Pottawattamie,  Clinton  and  Dubuque  count ios.  Four 
others  contain  cities  above  nine  thousand,  Mahaska,  Lee,  Mar- 
shall and  Cerro  Gordo.  Two  of  the  remainder,  Monroe  and  Ap- 
panoose, contain  large  mining  towns,  and  one  other,  Lucas,  bor- 
ders upon  the  mining  section  and  contains  some  mines.  Only 
two,  Jones  and  Clarke,  contain  no  cities  of  importance  and  no 
mines.  Of  the  counties  containing  cities,  Mahaska,  Polk,  and 
Wapello  also  contain  important  mines,  Mahaska  and  Polk  in 
particular,  but  only  in  Mahaska  is  a  really  important  per  cent 
of  the  population  engaged  in  mining. 

Of  the  individual  counties  Polk,  though  ranking  within  the 
first  twenty  in  but  six  tables  instead  of  seven,  as  do  Mahaska 
and  Linn,  -undoubtedly  has  the  worst  record.  It  ranks  first  by  a 
wide  margin  in  all  tables  but  two,  second  in  one,  expense  of 
criminal  prosecution,  and  low  in  but  one,  that  on  dependence, 
in  which  it  is  thirty-first.  In  practically  all  phases  of  criminal- 
ity and  delinquency,  Polk  County  stands  in  a  class  by  itself. 
This  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  Des  Moines  forms  such  a 
large  part  of  its  population.  Des  Moines  itself  as  compared 
with  other  cities  has  a  uniformly  high  rate  in  everything.  Mus- 
catine has  almost  an  equal  rate  in  industrial  commitments, 
Oskaloosa  a  penal  rate  somewhat  above,  Perry  and  Ames  even 
higher  rates  in  inebriate  commitments,  but  Des  Moines  is  uni- 
formly high  in  everything  save  dependence. 

Wapello,  Linn  and  Alahaska,  have  somewhat  similar  records. 
The  low  rank  of  Wapello  in  juvenile  court  cases  would  seem  to 
be  due  to  an  error  in  reporting  since  it  is  entirely  different  from 
the  record  in  industrial  school  commitments.  Of  the  three, 
Linn  has  a  city  of  considerable  size.  Cedar  Rapids.  Ottumwa 
in  Wapello   County   is  above  twenty  thousand   in   population, 


142  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

and  Oskaloosa  in  Mahaska  County  between  nine  thousand  and 
ten  thousand.  Both  Wapello  and  Mahaska  counties  contain  coal 
mines.  Lee  County,  which  includes  Keokuk  and  Fort  Madison 
offends  worst  in  inebriate  hospital  and  industrial  school  com- 
mitments, aside  from  the  high  per  capita  expense  for  criminal 
prosecution.  Woodbury  and  Scott  counties,  containing  the  ur- 
ban centers  of  Sioux  City  and  Davenport  respectively,  show 
their  worst  record  in  juvenile  court  cases  and  in  penal  commit- 
ments. Woodbury  County  has  a  bad  record  in  inebriate  com- 
mitments, Scott  in  dependence  and  in  cost  of  criminal  prosecu- 
tion. The  poor  record  of  Lucas  County  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  explain.  The  presence  of  a  coal  mining  population  may  be 
a  factor,  but  this  is  hardly  large  enough  to  offer  an  adequate 
explanation.  Marhsall  County  has  its  most  unsatisfactory  rec- 
ord in  industrial  school  commitments  and  juvenile  offenses. 
An  unusually  high  per  cent  of  the  industrial  school  commit- 
ments from  this  county  has  been  composed  of  girls. 

Of  the  remaining  counties  only  a  few  points  need  to  be  noted. 
As  already  mentioned,  Monroe  and  Appanoose  counties,  great 
mining  centers,  are  notable  for  their  rate  of  total  criminal 
convictions,  and  Pottawattamie  County,  containing  the  city  of 
Council  Bluffs,  shows  quite  a  bad  record  in  penal  commitments. 
The  size  of  this  city,  and  the  close  proximity  of  Omaha,  are  no 
doubt  factors  in  explaining  this  record  of  the  county  and  of  its 
neighbor  Mills.  Both  Pottawattamie  and  Clinton  counties  have 
bad  records  in  industrial  school  commitments  and  juvenile 
offenses.  Jones  County  has  a  poor  record  especially  in  depend- 
ence. Both  it  and  Clarke  have  a  fairly  high  rank  in  penal  com- 
mitments. No  adequate  reason  for  these  records  has  been 
found.  Dubuque  County,  though  containing  the  city  of  Du- 
buque has  on  the  whole  quite  low  ranks,  the  chief  exceptions 
being  in  juvenile  offenses  and  in  dependence.  Attention 
should  perhaps  be  called  to  the  absence  of  Black  Hawk  and  Des 
Moines  counties  from  this  table  of  seventeen  counties  with  the 
poorest  records.  This  is  rather  remarkable  since  their  respect- 
ive cities,  Waterloo  and  Burlington,  are  of  considerable  size  and 
importance.  Efficient  and  long  continued  social  ^^o^k  probably 
is  an   important  factor  in  the  explanation. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     143 

RECORDS  OF  CITIES,  DELINQUENTS  AND 
DEPENDENTS 
The  findings  in  regard  to  the  comparative  standing  of  all 
cities  of  the  State  of  four  thousand  or  above  are  summarized  in 
Table  XLVIII,  in  which  the  forty-one  cities  are  placed  in  the 
order  of  the  sum  of  their  ranks  in  the  tables  showing  penal  com- 
mitments, inebriate  hospital  commitments  and  industrial  school 
commitments  by  cities. 

TABLE  XLVIII'^ 

Comparative  Eank,  Iowa  Cities  above  4,000,  in  Penal,  Inebriate  Hospital, 
and  Industrial  School  Commitments 


a  K 

re     S 

**^  o 

a 

?3 

o         •— 

City 

05   & 

11 

M  '^ 

§■«' 
^  s 

County  in  whic 
located 

1. 

Des  Moines 

1 

2 

4 

1 

7 

Polk 

2. 

Cedar  Rapids 

5 

13 

5 

3 

21 

Linn 

2. 

Ottumwa 

10 

9 

6 

6 

21 

Wapello 

4. 

Oskaloosa 

18 

1 

23 

4 

28 

Mahaska 

5. 

Marshalltown 

14 

15 

13 

5 

33 

Marshall 

6. 

Red  Oak 

31 

7 

22 

7 

36 

Montgomery 

7. 

Boone 

16 

16 

11 

14 

41 

Boone 

7. 

Centerville 

20 

5 

10 

26 

41 

Ai:)panoose 

9. 

Perry 

32 

36 

1 

9 

46 

Dallas 

10. 

Sioux  City 

2 

11 

21 

16 

47 

Woodbury 

11. 

Davenport 

3 

19 

30 

10 

49 

Scott 

11. 

Fort  Dodge 

12 

23 

8 

18 

49 

Webster 

13. 

Keokuk 

13 

22 

12 

17 

51 

Lee 

1.3. 

Chariton 

41 

4 

39 

8 

51 

Lucas 

15. 

Mason   City 

15 

12 

28 

12 

52 

Cerro  Gordo 

16. 

Council    Bluffs 

6 

14 

20 

19 

53 

Pottawattamie 

17. 

Muscatine 

11 

18 

34 

2 

54 

Muscatine 

18. 

Shenandoah 

27 

17 

27 

11 

55 

Page 

18. 

Newton 

33 

21 

19 

15 

55 

Jasper 

20. 

Creston 

21 

10 

24 

22 

56 

Tallinn 

21. 

Le  Mars 

38 

20 

3 

36 

59 

Plymouth 

22. 

Clarinda 

40 

8 

32 

20 

60 

Page 

2:\. 

Iowa  City 

17 

24 

17 

23 

64 

Johnson 

24. 

Marion 

35 

6 

29 

30 

65 

Linn 

24. 

Webster  City 

24 

30 

7 

28 

65 

Hn  mi 'ton 

144  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


26. 

Gniinell 

25 

32 

18 

21 

71 

Poweshiek 

27. 

Waterloo 

7 

29 

14 

29 

72 

Black  Hawk 

28. 

Ft.  Madison 

19 

26 

16 

31 

73 

Lee 

29. 

Washington 

36 

31 

31 

13 

75 

Washington 

30. 

Fairfield 

28 

34 

15 

27 

76 

Jefferson 

31. 

Oelwein 

22 

38 

9 

34 

81 

Fayette 

31. 

Atlantic 

34 

3 

40 

38 

81 

Cass 

33. 

Ames 

37 

40 

2 

40 

82 

Story 

34. 

Albia 

29 

33 

25 

25 

83 

Monroe 

35. 

Clinton 

8 

27 

35 

32 

94 

Clinton 

36. 

Dubuque 

4 

28 

38 

35 

101 

Dubuque 

36. 

Cherokee 

30 

41 

36 

24 

101 

Cherokee 

38. 

Burlington 

9 

25 

41 

37 

103 

Des  Moines 

39. 

Charles   City 

23 

35 

37 

33 

105 

Floyd 

40. 

C'edar  Falls 

26 

39 

26 

41 

106 

Black  Hawk 

41. 

Glenwood 

39 

37 

33 

39 

109 

Mills 

Little  comment  upon  this  table  is  necessary  after  that  which 
has  been  made  upon  the  various  counties.  The  four  cities  of 
highest  rank  in  this  table  are  located  in  the  first  four  counties  in 
Table  XL VI I.  Beyond  this  point  the  correspondence  is  not  so 
close  owing  in  part  at  least  to  the  fact  that  Table  XLVIII  cov- 
ers but  three  lines  of  investigation  instead  of  the  seven  repre- 
sented in  Table  XLVII.  As  a  result,  though  Dubuque  County 
is  one  of  the  upper  seventeen  counties  considered  in  Table 
XLVII,  the  city  of  Dubuque  comes  far  down  the  list  in  Table 
XLVIII,  the  poor  record  of  the  city,  so  far  as  shown  by  avail- 
able statistics,  being  in  cost  of  criminal  prosecution,  juvenile 
court  cases,  items  upon  which  no  information  by  cities  was 
available. 

At  this  point  it  is  perhaps  well  to  repeat  a  word  of  caution 
already  made  elsewhere  in  regard  to  the  interpretation  of  these 
statistics,  especially  in  comparing  individual  communities.  Ab- 
normally low  rates  may  mean  very  ineffective  law  enforcement 
instead  of  good  social  conditions.  Tables  such  as  these  are  of 
value  as  pointing  out  the  places  where  abnormal  conditions  ex- 
ist, but  must  be  checked  up  by  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  com- 
munity under  consideration  before  one  can  be  absolutely  cer- 
tain whether  the  local  social  conditions  or  the  character  of  law- 
enforcement  is  responsible.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  records  of  Waterloo,  Clinton,  Dubuque, 
and  Burlington. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     145 

Table  XLIII  summarized  the  data  available  at  that  point  up- 
on the  question  of  correlation  of  commitment  rates  and  city 
population.  For  Table  XLVIII  the  correlation  coefficient  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  Spearman's  formula  is  .243,  somewhat  high- 
er than  the  coefficient  obtained  from  any  previous  city  table. 
In  other  v»ords,  the  average  of  the  record  of  the  cities  in  the 
three  lines  studied  is  more  closely  correlated  with  population 
than  is  the  record  of  any  single  line,  due  perhaps  to  a  more 
complete  elimination  of  chance  variations. 

The  study,  also,  reveals  one  point  of  interest  as  to  the  corre- 
lation between  the  presence  of  cities  and  of  undesirable  social 
conditions.  Thirty-five,  or  over  one-third  of  the  counties,  do 
not  come  within  the  first  twenty  in  any  of  tlie  seven  main  tables. 
Yet  of  the  forty-one  cities  above  four  thousand  in  population, 
only,  four,  less  than  one  in  ten,  are  in  these  counties.  Another 
noticeable  feature  is  the  same  correlation  in  the  counties  center- 
ing around  Monroe  County,  and  corresponding  roughly  to  the 
chief  mining  section  of  the  State. 

RECORDS   OF   INDIVIDUAL   COUNTIES,   DEFECTIVES 

In  Table  XLIX  the  records  of  the  counties  showing  highest 
rates  for  tuberculosis,  feeble-minded  and  insane  are  summar- 
ized. All  counties  occurring  within  the  first  twenty  in  any  one 
of  three  principal  tables  are  included.  In  the  first  column  are 
given  the  number  of  times  each  county  came  within  the  first 
twenty,  three  being  the  maximum  possible.  In  later  columns 
are  given  the  rank  of  the  county  in  each  table  and  finally  tlie 
sum  of  ranks  for  each  county. 


146 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


TABLE  XLIX^" 


Comparative  Table  of  Iowa  Counties  Comiug  within  the  First  Twenty 
in  Principal  Tables  for  Defectives 


15  «« 

-«1 

n 

-tJ  rH 

S  ^ 

S     « 

ei  c3 

S  a 

County 

^.S 

1.2 

3  § 

1. 

Lee 

3 

14 

6 

1 

21 

2. 

Lucas 

3 

15 

13 

19 

47 

3. 

Benton 

2 

9 

33 

20 

62 

4. 

Boone 

2 

7 

53 

16 

76 

5. 

Davis 

2 

19 

3 

33 

55 

6. 

Des  Moines 

2 

29 

20 

5 

54 

7. 

Iowa 

2 

16 

39 

18 

73 

8. 

Jefferson 

2 

28 

15 

3 

46 

9. 

Johnson 

2 

3 

59 

12 

74 

10. 

Jones 

2 

37 

2 

7 

46 

11. 

Keokuk 

2 

11 

18 

70 

99 

12. 

Marshall 

2 

17 

7 

22 

46 

13. 

Scott 

2 

2 

43 

2 

47 

14. 

Van  Buren 

2 

20 

23 

6 

49 

15. 

Wapello 

2 

25 

19 

15 

59 

16. 

Worth 

2 

4 

92 

14 

110 

17. 

Allamakee 

81 

38 

17 

136 

18. 

Bremer 

8 

48 

39 

95 

19. 

Cass 

90 

4 

63 

157 

20. 

Cedar 

17 

36 

56 

109 

21. 

Clayton 

45 

49 

11 

105 

22. 

Clinton 

22 

65 

8 

95 

23. 

Crawford 

74 

5 

65 

144 

24. 

Decatur 

12 

21 

34 

67 

25. 

Fremont 

95 

17 

58 

170 

26. 

Harrison 

84 

16 

62 

162 

27. 

Henry 

48 

70 

4 

122 

28. 

Humiioldt 

10 

34 

48 

92 

29. 

Jackson 

54 

9 

46 

109 

30. 

Linn 

5 

47 

50 

102 

31. 

Louisa 

57 

14 

41 

112 

32. 

Madison 

89 

12 

27 

128 

33. 

Mills 

96 

1 

54 

151 

34. 

Mitchell 

61 

61 

13 

135 

35. 

Montgomery 

98 

24 

10 

132 

36. 

Page 

76 

10 

26 

112 

37. 

Polk 

6 

37 

45 

88 

43 

86 

83 

125 

32 

92 

9 

136 

79 

122 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     14; 

38.  Poweshiek  1  1  42 

39.  Ringgold  1  58  11 

40.  Union  1  52  8 

41.  Winneshiek  1  39  88 

42.  Woodbury  1  13  30 

Of  the  total  number  of  counties  considered  only  two  occur 
within  the  first  twenty  in  all  three  tables.  Fourteen  occur  with- 
in the  first  twenty  in  two  tables,  and  twenty-six  only  in  one. 
Of  the  two  counties  within  the  first  twenty  the  maximum  num- 
ber of  times,  one,  Lee,  has  a  high  urban  per  cent  and  contains 
tw^o  cities,  one  of  over  fourteen  thousand,  one  of  nearly  nine 
thousand.  The  other  contains  one  city  of  about  four  thousand 
and  a  few  coal  mines,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  adequate  explan- 
ation for  its  high  record.  Its  highest  rank  is  in  feeble-minded- 
ness.  The  fact  that  it  is  directly  east  of  Glenwood  on  a  througli 
line  of  railway  might  account  for  this  in  a  measure. 

Of  the  fourteen  counties  ranking  within  the  first  twenty  in 
only  two  tables,  three  are  within  the  first  twenty  in  tuberculosis 
and  feeble-mindedness,  seven  in  tuberculosis  and  insanity,  and 
four  in  feeble-mindedness  and  insanity.  Effect  of  location  of 
institutions  would  seem  to  be  partially  responsible  for  the  small 
number  within  the  first  twenty  in  both  tuberculosis  and  feeble- 
mindedness. The  counties  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State 
near  the  State  sanatorium  normally  rank  highest  in  tuberculous 
admissions,  those  in  the  southAvestern  part  of  the  State  high- 
est in  feeble-mindedness.  Of  the  four  counties  ranking  within 
the  first  twenty  in  feeble-mindedness  and  insanity  none  are  in 
the  southwestern  portion  of  the  State,  but  three  of  them  are  in 
the  tier  of  counties  directly  east  of  Mills,  in  which  Glenwood  is 
located,  and  traversed  by  a  through  line  of  railway  to  Glen- 
wood. The  relatively  small  proportion  of  the  counties  ranking 
high  in  two  tables — in  feeble-mindedness,  seven  as  compared 
with  ten  in  tu])erculosis,  and  eleven  in  insanity — may  bo  par- 
tially explained  by  the  comparatively  rural  cliaraeter  of  the 
southwest  portion  of  the  State. 

Of  the  fourteen  counties  just  considered  two,  Des  Moines  and 
Scott,  contain  cities  of  considerable  size.  Wapello  a  city  of 
about  twenty-two  thousand,  Johnson  and  Marshall  eacli  one  of 
about  ten  thousand,  and  Jefferson  one  of  a  little  over  four  thou- 


148 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 


sand.  Five  counties  contain  no  cities  of  importance.  Of  the 
counties  containing  the  eight  largest  cities  in  the  State  only  one 
appears  among  those  ranking  among  the  first  twenty  in  more 
than  one  table,  less  than  the  nonnal  proportion. 

Of  the  twenty-six  counties  ranking  among  the  first  twenty  in 
only  one  table,  eight  so  rank  in  the  table  for  tuberculous  admis- 
sions, eleven  in  the  table  for  inmates  of  the  institution  for  the 
feeble-minded,  and  seven  in  the  table  for  inmates  of  insane  hos- 
pitals. The  higher  proportion  from  the  table  dealing  with 
feeble-mindedness  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  high  admission 
rates  to  Glenwood  of  counties  located  near  the  institution,  and 
not  offering  really  serious  social  conditions.  Of  the  eleven, 
nine  are  located  in  the  western  half  of  the  State,  eight  of  the 
nine  in  the  southwest  quarter.  Of  the  eight  ranking  in  the  first 
twenty  in  the  table  for  tuberculous,  six  are  located  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  State. 

RECORDS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CITIES,  DEFECTIVES 
The  facts  discovered  in  regard  to  individual  cities  are  sum- 
marized in  Table  L,  in  which  the  cities  are  ranked  in  order  of 
average  rank  in  the  three  tables  giving  records  of  cities.  Rank 
in  population,  and  in  each  of  the  three  tables  is  given  in  parallel 
columns. 

TABLE  L." 

Comparative  Rank,  Iowa  Cities  above  4000  in  State  Tuberculosis  Sana- 
torium,   Institution    for    Feeble-Miuded    Children    and   Insane 
Hospital  Admission 


.2 

O  T^ 

3 

o 

•X, 

% 

-5     32 

a 

a< 

a3  S 

42    O    M 

o 

r3     .—4 

®            O 

d  *i 

«+-(    o 

P^ 

-S    S 

'^^■^ 

•S  g 

o-^ 

o 

CD    5: 

02 

City 

^ 
d 

a  2  fl 
r:  3  o 

MH      »     GO 

Rank 
mind 
admii 

^5 

is 

32   rt 

County   in 
which  located 

1. 

Keokuk 

13 

7 

18 

2 

27 

Lee 

2. 

Des  Moines 

1 

8 

4 

16 

28 

Polk 

3. 

Boone 

16 

4 

9 

25 

38 

Boone 

4. 

Oskaloosa 

18 

11 

17 

12 

40 

Mahaska 

4. 

Shenandoah 

27 

25 

12 

3 

40 

Page 

DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES.  DELINQUENTS     14!» 


r^ 

Cedar   Rapids 

0 

3 

31 

7 

41 

Linn 

7 

Chariton 

41 

20 

5 

18 

43 

Lucas 

7 

Atlantic 

34 

39 

3 

1 

43 

Cass 

p, 

Ames 

37 

6 

28 

10 

44 

Story 

9 

Mar.shalltowu 

14 

13 

22 

9 

44 

>Lirshall 

11. 

Cedar  Falls 

16 

5 

20 

21 

46 

Black  Hawk 

n. 

Creston 

21 

31 

1 

14 

46 

Union 

11. 

Glenwood 

39 

35 

6 

5 

46 

Mills 

14. 

Ottumwa 

10 

12 

7 

28 

47 

Wapello 

15. 

Mason  City 

15 

18 

11 

19 

48 

Cerro  Gordo 

16. 

Clarinda 

40 

21 

24 

6 

51 

Page 

Woodbury 

17. 

Sioux  City- 

2 

26 

8 

20 

54 

18. 

Marion 

35 

9 

10 

37 

56 

Linn 

19. 

Iowa   City 

17 

1 

32 

24 

57 

Johnson 

19. 

Burlington 

9 

14 

14 

29 

57 

Des  Moines 

21. 

Grinrell 

25 

2 

23 

34 

59 

Poweshiek 

21. 

Ft.  Dodge 

12 

17 

25 

17 

59 

Webster 

2.3. 

Waterloo 

7 

24 

15 

22 

61 

Black  Hawk 

24. 

Ft.  Madison 

19 

22 

37 

4 

63 

Lee 

25. 

Davenport 

3 

15 

21 

33 

69 

Scott 

25. 

Xewton 

33 

40 

2 

27 

69 

Jasper 

27. 

Fairfield 

28 

10 

36 

26 

72 

Jefferson 

27. 

Albia 

29 

38 

19 

15 

72 

Monroe 

29. 

Clinton 

8 

19 

27 

31 

77 

Clinton 

30. 

Perry 

32 

32 

39 

8 

79 

Dallas 

31. 

Council  Bulflfs 

6 

33 

13 

36 

82 

Pottawattamie 

31. 

Le  Mars 

38 

36 

16 

30 

82 

Plymouth 

State  of   Iowa 

21-22 

29-30 

32-33 

82-85 

33. 

Muscatine 

11 

23 

30 

32 

85 

Muscatine 

33. 

Charles  City 

23 

34 

40 

11 

85 

Floyd 

35. 

Centerville 

20 

29 

34 

23 

86 

Appanoose 

36. 

Red   Oak 

31 

41 

35 

13 

89 

Montgomery 

37. 

Washington 

36 

27 

29 

35 

91 

Washington 

38. 

Oelwein 

22 

16 

41 

40 

97 

Fayette 

39. 

Dubuque 

4 

28 

33 

39 

100 

Dubuque 

40. 

Webster  City 

24 

37 

26 

38 

101 

Hamilton 

41. 

Cherokee 

30 

30 

38 

41 

109 

Cherokee 

This  table  is  defective  because  it  covers  only  State  institu- 
tions and  not  those  under  county  or  pi-ivate  conti'ol.  For  cer- 
tain cities  making  large  use  of  private  institutions  tlie  record  is 
especially  unsatisfactory.  Moreover,  the  tables  for  cities  deal 
with  admissions,  while  those  for  counties  deal  witli  number  of 
inmates.  Yet  a  comparison  of  this  table  with  Table  XLIX.  giv- 
ing comparative  results  for  counties,  is  of  some  value.  Note- 
worthy at  once  is  the  fact  that  the  city  of  highest  average  rank, 
Keokuk,  is  located  in  Lee  County,  ranking  first  in  Table  XLIX; 


150  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

Boone  ranks  third  and  Boone  County  fourth;  Chariton  ranks 
seventh  and  Lucas  County  second;  yet  the  parallelism  is  not 
close.  Des  Moines  ranks  second  but  Polk  County  only  thirty- 
seventh  ;  Oskaloosa  ties  for  fourth  place  with  Shenandoah,  but 
Mahaska  County  does  not  come  within  the  first  twenty  in  any 
table,  and  Page  County  ranks  only  thirty-sixth  in  Table  XLIX. 
Notable,  too,  in  Table  L  is  the  comparatively  low  rank  of  Sioux 
City,  Burlington,  and  Waterloo,  though  these  cities  send  few 
defectives  to  private  institutions.  It  seems  evident  that  the 
presence  of  large  cities  has  comparatively  slight  influence  upon 
the  records  of  the  counties.  In  Table  L,  also,  there  is  little  if 
any  correlation  between  size  of  city  and  rank.  Use  of  Spear- 
man's formula  gives  a  coefficient  of  .054  with  a  probable  error 
of  .067. 

COMPARISON,  RECORDS  IN  DELINQUENTS  AND 
DEPENDENTS,  AND  IN  DEFECTIVES 

Of  interest  in  a  comparison  of  Tables  XLIX  and  L  with  the 
corresponding  tables  for  defendents  and  delinquents,  Tables 
XLVII  and  XLVIII,  comparing  first  the  tables  summarizing 
the  records  for  counties,  we  find  in  Table  XLVII  seventeen 
counties  ranking  among  the  first  twenty  in  three  or  more  of 
seven  primary  tables,  dealing  with  delinquents  and  dependents, 
and  in  Table  XLIX  sixteen  counties  within  the  first  twenty  in 
two  or  more  of  three  primary  tables  for  defectives.  In  the  two 
lists  we  find  a  total  of  twenty-seven  counties.  Of  these  Lee  has 
much  the  highest  average  record,  with  Lucas  second.  The  cor- 
relation between  record  for  delinquents  and  dependents  on  the 
one  hand,  and  defectives  on  the  other,  does  not  seem  close.  Of 
the  seventeen  coimties  in  the  list  of  highest  records  for  the 
former,  only  six,  Lee,  Lucas,  Jones,  Marshall,  Scott  and  Wap- 
ello, a  little  more  than  one-third,  occur  in  the  list  for  the  latter. 
There  is  correlation,  seemingly,  since  the  normal  number  in 
common  would  be  three,  but  it  is  not  of  very  high  degree. 

A  comparison  of  the  parallel  summary  tables  for  cities, 
Tables  XLVIII  and  L  shows  a  similar  result.  Des  Moines  ranks 
fifth  in  one  table  and  second  in  the  other,  Cedar  Rapids  second 
in  one  and  sixth  in  the  other,  and  Oskaloosa  fourth  in  both. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     151 

showing  that  these  cities  have  serious  records  in  all  phases  of 
social  infection,  but  beyond  this  the  correlation  is  not  marked. 
Use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives  .229  as  the  coefficient  of  cor- 
relation with  a  probable  error  of  .067.  There  is  no  doubt  of 
the  existence  of  real  correlation  but  not  of  high  degree. 

B.  SOCIAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  RESULTS 
A  very  natural  and  reasonable  inquiry  in  regard  to  a  study 
such  as  this  is  as  to  the  social  significance  of  the  results.  An  ac- 
curate valuation  is  impossible  until  the  results  are  compared 
with  other  studies  in  the  same  general  field.  Nevertheless  cer- 
tain deductions  may  be  drawn  which  are  of  real  social  sig- 
nificance 

RURAL  VERSUS  URBAN 
One  point  which  stands  out  most  clearly  is  the  vivid  contrast 
between  rural  and  urban  conditions.  In  the  three  lines  along 
which  direct  comparison  was  possible,  i.  e.,  penal,  inebriate  hos- 
pital, and  industrial  school  commitments,  as  summarized  in 
Table  XXVIII,  the  contrast  is  quite  marked.  The  penal  com- 
mitment rate  for  villages  and  towns  is  six  times  as  great  as  that 
for  the  open  country,  the  inebriate  hospital  commitment  rate 
over  three  times  as  great,  and  the  industrial  school  commit- 
ment rate  more  than  eighty  times  as  great.  In  the  rural  dis- 
tricts where  every  one  is  known  crime  can  not  go  undetected  as 
it  does  in  cities.  What  a  neighbor  does  in  the  country  is  a  topic 
of  interest  and  of  conversation,  as  it  can  not  be  in  a  city  where 
many  of  the  residents  of  the  same  block  are  strangers.  Minor 
offences  might  go  unpunished  in  the  country  but  serious  of 
fences  would  not  be  palliated,  and  so  the  low  penal  rate  can  not 
be  caused  by  lack  of  law  enforcement.  It  may  be  asserted  that 
rural  districts  furnish  a  far  less  than  normal  per  cent  of  ser- 
ious offences.  This  means  one  or  the  other  of  two  things; — 
the  city  is  attractive  to  the  criminally  inclined  and  they  are 
drained  to  the  city  from  the  rural  districts,  or  else  the  more 
strenuous  life  of  the  city  subjects  the  weak  individual  to  strains 
which  he  can  not  endure,  and,  though  in  the  country  he  might 
remain  law-abiding,  in  the  city  he  becomes  a  criminal.    Butli  are 


152  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

probably  factors  in  the  situation;  the  city  both  attracts  and 
manufactures  criminals  in  a  far  greater  measure  than  does  the 
country. 

There  is  also  another  element  in  the  explanation  of  the  con- 
trast between  the  city  and  the  country,  at  least  so  far  as  ju^'en- 
ile  delinquency  is  concerned,  perhaps  also  in  inebriate  hospital 
commitments.  Individuals  may  do  things  in  the  country  with- 
out in  any  way  conflicting  with  the  recognized  rights  of  others 
Avhich  they  can  not  find  opportuntiy  to  do  in  the  city.  A  vast 
majority  of  juvenile  court  cases  are  not  truly  criminal  and  the 
offenses  would  pass  unnoticed  in  the  country.  This  is  especially 
true  of  many  things  all  boys  naturally  do  in  their  search  for 
play  and  recreation.  Travis  in  his  book,  "The  Young  Male- 
factor," makes  the  effectiveness  or  ineffectiveness  of  home  in- 
fluences the  crucial  factor.  In  the  city  there  are  unquestion- 
ably far  more  distributing  elements  tending  to  render  these  in- 
fluences ineffective  than  in  the  case  in  the  country. 

There  is  some  correlation  between  the  total  dependence  and 
concentration  of  population  in  towns  and  cities.  This  would 
naturally  be  expected.  People  in  a  country  neighborliood  know 
one  another  well  and  there  is  interchange  of  help  and  service 
in  time  of  need  which  naturally  lessen  public  dependence.  Wage 
earners  are  most  apt  to  become  dependent  and  these  are  a 
smaller  element  of  the  rural  population  than  of  the  urban. 
Nevertheless  the  correlation  between  dependence  and  urban 
population  is  lower  than  that  between  urban  population  and 
any  other  of  the  phases  of  social  infection  studied,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  inebriate  hospital  commitments.  There  is  one  factor 
which  may  explain  this  situation.  In  a  considerable  per  cent  of 
the  larger  towns  and  cities,  there  is  some  effort  made  to  follow 
intelligent  methods  in  the  distribution  of  private  charity  and 
the  securing  of  permanent  rehabilitation  of  families.  This  con- 
structive social  work  would  seem  to  have  an  important  influence. 
An  illustration  is  the  fairly  low  rank  of  Polk  County  in  depend- 
ence as  contrasted  with  very  high  ranks  in  all  other  lines.  In 
no  other  line  is  constructive  work  carried  on  to  so  large  an 
extent. 

The  records  for  defectives  in  institutions  show  similarly  low 
rates  for  the  open  country.     On  the  other  hand  villages  and 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     153 

towns  under  two  thousand  have  high  rates,  especially  in  feeble- 
mindedness and  insanity.  For  insane  admitted  to  state  institu- 
tions they  show  the  maximum  record.  The  open  country  shows 
the  minimum  rate,  but  there  is  little  tendency  for  city  rates  to 
rise  with  the  increase  in  size  of  the  cities  considered.  Lack  of 
appreciation  of  the  importance  of  institutional  care  and  ignor- 
ance of  the  facilities  available  at  State  institutions  may  account 
in  part  for  the  low  rates  for  the  open  country.  Care  of  defect- 
ives in  the  homes  is  also  easier  there.  Yet,  if  these  were  large 
factors  the  records  for  villages  would  more  closely  parallel 
those  for  the  open  country,  for  the  village  population  and  the 
open  countr}'  population  have  much  in  common  in  matters  of 
general  education,  and,  to  a  less  degree,  in  opportunity  for  home 
care  of  defectives.  A  larger  proportion  of  the  rural  feeble- 
minded and  insane  than  of  urban  feeble-minded  and  insane  are 
kept  in  county  institutions.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  ig- 
norance of  the  superiority  of  the  care  given  in  State  institu- 
tions. So  far  as  the  insane  are  concerned,  it  is  no  doubt  due  in 
part  also  to  differences  in  character  between  rural  and  ui-ban 
insanity.  The  less  violent  and  also  the  less  hopeful  cases  are 
much  more  apt  to  be  sent  to  county  homes  for  detention. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  in  various  quarters  that  large 
numbers  proportionately  of  country  women  go  insane.  This 
is  not  true  for  Iowa,  so  far  as  records  show.  Tlie  open  country 
rates  of  insanity  are  lowest  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  women, 
as  compared  with  men,  become  insane  in  the  country  than  in  the 
urban  centers  of  any  size. 

The  data  summarized  in  Table  XXVIII  throws  some  light 
upon  the  question  of  what  should  be  our  definition  of  rural  as 
contrasted  with  urban.  Frequently,  as  in  the  Federal  Census, 
small  towns  and  villages  as  well  as  the  open  country  are  in- 
cluded under  the  term  rural.  So  far  as  Iowa  is  concerned  this 
would  seem  not  to  be  in  accord  with  actual  conditions.  The  con- 
trast between  the  open  country  and  the  villages  and  towns  under 
two  thousand  is  far  greater  than  between  these  villages  and 
even  the  largest  divisions  considered.  If  a  strict  distinction  be- 
tween rural  and  urban  is  to  be  drawn  they  belong  under  the 
head  of  urban,  not  of  rural  connnunities.  In  many  ways  sm-h 
communities  represent  a  transition  stage  and  sliow  l)otli  r\iral 


154  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

and  urban  characteristics,  but  they  more  nearly  approximate 
the  urban.  The  lumping  together  of  data  for  the  open  country 
and  for  villages  and  small  towns  is  peculiarly  unfortunate  in 
reference  to  any  study  of  insanity,  since  for  Iowa  State  institu- 
tions the  one  shows  minimum,  the  other  maximum  rates. 

CONDITIONS  IN  SMALL  TOWNS 
One  marked  feature  of  Table  XXVIII  is  the  lack  of  any  close 
correlation  between  the  size  of  urban  communities  and  the  rate 
of  commitments  of  delinquents,  save  in  the  one  line  of  industrial 
school  commitments.  This  exception  would  indicate  that  the 
juvenile  problem  grows  constantly  more  serious  and  complex 
as  population  becomes  more  concentrated  in  urban  centers.  The 
unexpectedly  high  rates  for  the  smaller  urban  communities, 
especially  in  penal  commitments,  require  some  explanation. 
Cities  between  two  thousand  and  four  thousand  have  the  maxi- 
mum penal  rate ;  the  same  cities  have  an  inebriate  commitment 
rate  above  that  of  cities  between  four  tliousand  and  eight 
thousand.  No  doubt  more  effective  law  enforcement  is  a  fac- 
tor. It  is  unquestionably  less  difficult  to  secure  efficient  law 
enforcement  in  such  communities  than  in  larger  centers  where 
there  is  less  close  acquaintance  among  all  elements  in  the  com- 
munity. It  is  questionable,  however,  if  this  is  all.  May  it  not 
be  due  to  the  failure  to  recognize  and  meet  the  social  problems 
of  the  community?  The  larger  cities  recognize  their  problems 
and  are  making  more  or  less  effective  efforts  to  solve  them.  The 
same  problems  exist  in  the  small  community  on  a  smaller  scale 
but  unrecognized  and  neglected.  Owing  to  the  smaU  size  of  the 
community  the  evil  influence  may  not  bring  a  boy  into  conflict 
with  the  law  until  he  has  passed  the  juvenile  delinquency  age, 
but  the  evil  tendencies  may  develop  unchecked  until  they  reach 
their  natural  outcome  in  more  mature  years. 

Most  marked,  however,  are  the  high  rates  for  the  small  towns 
in  admittances  to  State  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded  and 
the  insane.  This  record  is  not  easy  to  explain  satisfactorily. 
The  only  line  of  explanation  which  suggests  itself  is  that  al- 
ready mentioned  in  the  consideration  of  delinquents,  serious 
evils  exist  but  unrecognized  and  no  effort  is  made  to  combat 
them. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     155 

THE  LARGE  CITY 
Des  Moines,  the  capital  of  the  State,  stands  out  as  the  one 
large  city.  Despite  the  presence  of  organizations  for  social  work 
similar  to  those  in  other  cities  of  the  State,  the  figures  obtained 
in  this  study  give  Des  Moines  much  the  worst  average  record  of 
any  city  in  all  phases  of  criminality  and  delinquency,  worse 
even  than  that  of  cities  with  little  effective  social  work.  It 
ranks  second  also  in  the  average  record  for  admissions  of  defect- 
ives to  institutions.  From  this  it  is  obvious  that  the  social  prob- 
lems of  the  city  of  approximately  one  hundred  thousand  are 
not  the  same  as  those  of  the  city  of  twenty-five  thousand  or  even 
fifty  thousand.  The  larger  size  and  greater  concentration  of 
population  bring  new  conditions  which  demand  a  different  sort 
of  treatment.  The  social  agencies  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of 
a  city,  one-third  or  one-half  the  size,  are  inadequate  to  cope 
successfully  with  the  problems  here  presented.  Forms  of  or- 
ganization for  social  work  which  have  proved  effective  in 
smaller  cities  can  not  be  taken  over  in  entirety,  but  must  be  ad- 
justed to  meet  the  needs  of  a  more  complex  situation.  In  Des 
Moines  the  agencies  for  dealing  directly  with  dependence  seem 
fairly  well  adjusted  to  the  existing  conditions.  The  same  can 
not  be  said  of  agencies  for  the  prevention  of  crime  and  juvenile 
delinquency. 

INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS 

There  would  seem  to  be  a  close  relation  between  unsatisfac- 
tory industrial  conditions  and  social  infection,  particularly  in 
the  field  of  juvenile  delinquency.  One  city,  Muscatine,  the 
center  of  the  pearl  button  industry,  has  more  industrial  child 
laborers  in  absolute  numbers  than  any  other  city.  Correspond- 
ing to  this  has  been  the  worst  record  in  juvenile  delinquency  of 
any  city  save  the  one  large  city  discussed  in  the  previous  sec- 
tion. There  would  seem  to  be  no  connection  between  industry 
per  se  and  social  infection,  but  the  sort  of  industrial  conditions 
which  bring  .serious  industrial  unrest  and  include  child  labor 
as  an  important  element,  produce  serious  social  problems. 

The  mining  communities  are  serious  centers  of  social  infec- 
tion.    This  is  not  surprising  to  anyone  who  is  at  all   familiar 


156  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

with  the  conditions  in  the  mining  camps  of  south  eastern  Iowa. 
In  many  cases  almost  the  entire  population  is  engaged  in  the  one 
occupation.  The  elements  in  society  which  have  the  education, 
the  financial  independence,  and  the  leisure  to  actively  promote 
projects  for  civic  betterment  are  almost  entirely  unrepresented. 
Many  of  the  communities  are  but  temporary  in  character,  eight 
years  being  the  average  lifetime;  they  spring  up  almost  over 
night  with  the  opening  of  a  new  mine,  flourish  for  a  time,  and 
then  disappear  as  suddenly  as  they  appeared.'^  Under  such  con- 
ditions a  true  civic  spirit  and  interest  in  the  permanent  well 
being  of  the  community  are  hardly  to  be  expected.  Effective 
religious  and  social  agencies  are  not  easily  developed  from  with- 
in the  community  itself.  The  State  Board  of  Mine  Inspectors 
has  recognized  these  conditions  and  in  its  latest  report  has  ad- 
vocated the  abolition  of  all  mining  camps  in  the  State. '^^ 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  positive  correlation 
between  the  presence  of  foreign  population  and  social  infection. 
Foreign  customs  in  the  matter  of  the  use  of  liquor  and  in  the 
attitude  towards  its  use  present  a  factor  to  be  considered.  These 
general  characteristics  are  due  to  the  national  elements  making 
up  most  of  Iowa's  immigration,  i.  e.,  the  northern  European. 
In  the  mining  communities,  however,  a  different  problem  is  pre- 
sented by  a  large  element  of  southern  Europeans,  another  factor 
in  the  complex  social  situation  there  found. 

SOCIAL  WORK 

The  effect  of  constructive  social  work  upon  social  infection  is 
difficult  to  determine.  The  t  vidence  available,  however,  goes  to 
show  tliat  it  is  of  positive  benefit.  The  cities  presenting  the 
most  serious  conditions,  excepting  the  one  large  city,  Des 
Moines,  are  ones  in  which  there  was  no  effective  organization  or 
work  along  this  line  during  the  period  covered.  A  number  of 
cities  with  such  work  well  organized  show  much  less  serious 
problems.  In  admissions  of  defectives  to  institutions,  some  com- 
munities with  well  organized  social  work  show  high  rates  along 
one  or  more  lines.  A  notable  instance  is  that  of  the  record  of 
Grinnell  and  Poweshiek  County  in  admissions  to  tuberculosis 
sanatoria.     Thorough  education  as  to  the  need  of  institutional 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     157 

care  and  a  constructive  public  policy  rather  than  peculiarly 
serious  evils  seem  responsible.  Keokuk's  high  record  may  be  in 
part  due  to  the  same  causes. 

INFLUENCE  OF  INSTITUTIONS 
Quite  a  disproportionate  share  of  the  inmates  of  each  state  in- 
stitution come  from  the  counties  and  cities  located  in  close  prox- 
imity to  it.  This  is  least  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  State  hos- 
pitals for  the  insane  which  are  well  distributed,  but  even  here 
the  influence  of  proximity  is  evident.  This  phenomenon  seems 
to  be  due  to  a  greater  familiarity  with  the  facilities  offered  by 
the  State,  and  a  greater  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  prop- 
er care  of  the  type  of  defectives  concerned.  The  physicians  at 
the  State  tuberculosis  sanatorium,  for  instance,  have  become 
acquainted  with  many  of  the  physicians  in  the  portion  of  the 
State  nearest  at  hand,  and  are  frequently  called  into  consulta- 
tion. Under  such  conditions  persons  needing  institutional  care 
are  far  more  likely  to  receive  it. 

CONSTRUCTIVE  PROGRAM 
The  significance  of  the  results  obtained  as  to  individual 
counties  and  communities  can  not  be  accurately  determined 
without  a  knowledge  of  certain  factors  in  the  different  local 
communities,  notably  in  regard  to  the  enforcement  of  law.  In- 
dividuals in  the  several  communities  in  the  State  familiar  with 
the  local  conditions  needed  for  sucli  interpretation  could  learn 
much  as  to  the  degree  of  social  infection  in  their  several  com- 
munities. It  is  they  who  must  outline  the  program  for  the  indi- 
vidual communities.  Certain  general  needs,  however,  may  be 
pointed  out.  One  of  the  most  obvious  is  that  the  smaller  urban 
communities  should  awake  to  the  fact  that  social  infection  is 
not  a  matter  of  the  large  city  alone.  It  exists  though  no  doubt 
in  a  less  virulent  form  in  the  smaller  community,  and  if  given 
no  attention  works  itself  out  in  crime,  pauperism,  and  dogon- 
eraey.  The  situation  is  parallel  to  that  in  the  donuiin  of  physi- 
cal infection.  Large  cities  offer  far  more  difficult  problems  of 
sanitation  and  prevention  of  the  spread  of  disease  than  do 
smaller  urban  communities,  but  disease  and  death  follow  neglect 


158  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

even  in  the  latter.  Better  provision  should  be  made  for  the  so- 
cial life  of  the  young  people. 

The  counties  whicli  are  largely  rural  and  the  small  towns 
offer  serious  problems  in  the  way  of  dependence.  The  distribu- 
tion of  public  relief  and  the  care  of  paupers  in  county  homes 
need  thorough  reorganization.  Arrangements  such  as  those  in 
Poweshiek  and  Wapello  counties  should  be  carefully  watched 
and  copied  if  proven  satisfactory.  In  some  way  the  trained 
charity  worker  must  be  made  a  factor  in  public  relief. 

The  very  high  rate  of  villages  and  small  towns  in  defectives 
and  especially  insane,  is  somewhat  surprising,  and  further  study 
is  needed  to  determine  its  exact  significance.  Conditions  in 
these  communities  have  been  relatively  static  for  a  long  period 
and  it  should  be  possible  to  see  the  normal  outworking  of  con- 
ditions. 

Community  welfare  demands  that  care  be  taken  that  justice 
is  given  in  industry  and  that  industrial  unrest  and  child  labor 
be  prevented.  If  this  is  not  done,  conditions  now  largely  iso- 
lated in  individual  communities  will  become  prevalent  as  the 
State  becomes  less  agricultural  and  more  industrial.  Special 
study  should  be  made  of  mining  communities  and  constructive 
efforts  made  to  meet  their  peculiar  problems.  life  in  the  larger 
urban  centers  and  in  industrial  communities  has,  so  far  as  evi- 
dence goes,  not  produced  as  yet  serious  rates  in  defectives.  Such 
communities,  however,  offer  conditions  of  relatively  recent  de- 
velopment, and  the  normal  results  in  the  increase  of  defective 
classes,  may  not  yet  have  had  time  to  appear.  Further  inves- 
tigation on  this  point  will  be  necessary  as  the  communities  be- 
come older. 

In  all  urban  centers,  especially  the  larger  ones,  increased  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  provision  of  opportunity  for  rec- 
reation, and  to  an  increased  utilization  of  the  school  plant. 
Legislation  making  possible  the  payment  of  probation  oflficers 
in  each  county  of  the  State  is  much  needed.  Several  of  the 
cities  with  the  worst  conditions  in  juvenile  delinquency  can  not 
have  a  probation  officer  paid  from  public  funds.  Until  this  is 
done,  private  organizations  should  undertake  to  meet  the  need. 

A   distribution   of   institutions   for   the    care    of    defectives 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     159 

throughout  the  State  woukl  seein  very  desirable  in  view  of  tlie 
educative  value  of  such  institutions.  The  evidence  would  seem 
to  favor  the  establishment  of  a  number  of  institutions  in  differ- 
ent districts  rather  than  concentration  of  efforts  upon  a  single 
large  institution.  A  much  larger  proportion  of  the  feeble- 
minded and  of  the  tuberculous  needing  institutional  care  would 
be  reached  if  such  a  policy  were  adopted. 

An  investigation  of  the  effectiveness  of  law  enforcement 
and  of  public  interest  and  policy  in  regard  to  defectives  in  the 
several  cities  of  the  State  would  be  of  great  value  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  this  study.  An  investigation  as  to  exactly  what  is 
being  done  in  constructive  social  work  would  also  be  of  value. 
Moreover,  if  the  work  of  census  bureaus  and  other  agencies 
for  investigation  in  this  field,  is  to  be  of  highest  value,  distinc- 
tion must  be  made  between  the  open  country  population  and 
that  living  in  small  towns.  Conditions  are  so  different  that 
differentiation  in  treatment  is  positively  demanded. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES 

1.  The  exceptions  are  as  follows. 

a.  For  Black  Hawk  county — rates  as  to  cost  of  criminal  prosecution, 
number  of  criminal  convictions,  number  of  penal  commitments,  number 
of  industrial  school  commitments,  and  number  of  cases  before  the  juven- 
ile court.  These  are  based  upon  the  average  between  the  pojjulation  in 
1905  and  1910. 

b.  For  Polk  County — rates  as  to  cost  of  criminal  prosecution,  number 
of  criminal  convictions,  number  of  penal  commitments,  and  number  of 
industrial  school  commitments.  These  are  based  upon  the  population  in 
1905. 

c.  For  Mason  City — rates  as  to  tuberculous  admitted  to  state  institu- 
tions based  upon  the  1915  State  Census. 

d.  For  Cedar  Falls — rates  as  to  tuberculous,  feeble-minded,  and  in 
sane  admitted  to  State  institution  based  on  the  1915  State  Census. 

2.  For  a  description  of  this  formula,  its  merits  and  short-comings,  see 
Brown,  Wm., — "Essentials  of  Mental  Measurements,"  pp.  71-76  and 
Spearma,  C. — ' '  Foot-rule  for  Measuring  Correlation, ' '  British  Journal 
of  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  Pt.  I,  July,  1906. 

3.  Owing  to  the  change  in  the  end  of  the  twelve  month  period  consid- 
ered, from  September  30  to  June  30,  the  period  covered  is  sixteen  years 
and  nine  months  instead  of  seventeen  and  the  rate  given  is  one-seventeenth 
the  rate  for  that  period. 

4.  Based  upon  recapitulation  tables  in  biennial  reports  as  to  criminal 
convictions  made  by  the  Secretary  of  State  until  1908,  and  since  that  time 
included  in  the  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Parole. 

Statistics  for  Emmet  County  as  to  cost  of  criminal  prosecution  are 
lacking  for  the  three  fiscal  years,  1909,  1910,  1911,  for  Floyd  and  John- 
son counties  for  1909,  and  for  Fremont,  Pocahontas,  Keokuk,  and  Monroe 
counties  for  1910.  This,  in  combination  with  the  situation  described  in 
Note  3,  results  in  slight  errors,  but  insufficient  to  materially  affect  the 
validity  of  any  comparisons. 

For  items  of  expense  included  in  the  report,  see  Section  475,  Iowa  Code 
of  1897,  Chapter  III,  and  also  changes  given  in  Supplement  of  1913.  See 
also  Section  293  to  which  the  latter  refers. 

5.  See  Note  3  and  the  first  part  of  Note  4  as  to  the  period  covered 
and  the  sources. 

The  sources  give  no  State  totals  as  to  the  number  of  convictions  for 
1909  and  1910.  Emmet  County  has  no  reports  for  1909,  1910,  and  1911, 
Floyd  County  for  1909,  and  Fremont,  Pocahontas,  and  Keokuk  counties 
for  1910.  Slight  sources  of  error  are  thus  introduced.  Moreover,  in  a  num- 
ber of  instances  where  no  figures  were  given,  it  was  impossible  to  be  ab- 
solutely certain  whether  this  was  due  to  failure  to  report  or  to  the  absence 
of  any  criminal  convictions  during  the  year. 

(160) 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     161 

6.  Based  upon  data  in  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Con- 
trol. In  the  reports  published  in  1899,  1901,  1903,  this  data  is  found  in 
the  copies  of  the  reports  of  the  wardens  of  the  penal  institutions  printed 
in  the  closing  section  of  the  book.  From  1905  to  date  the  corresponding 
figures  are  found  in  the  statistical  tables  as  to  penal  institutions  contained 
in  Part  II,  Division  I  of  the  State  Board  reports. 

7.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  the  population 
of  penal  institutions  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  State  Board  of  Control 
reports  for   1910,    1912,   1914. 

8.  Based  for  1900-1906  upon  Table  295,  page  408,  of  the  report  of  the 
State  Board  of  Control  for  1906;  for  1909-1914  upon  data  contained  in 
the  statistical  tables  as  to  the  population  of  penal  institutions,  in  Part 
II,  Division  I,  of  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914. 
Statistics  for  Clarinda  and  Chariton  are  available  only  for  1900-1906, 
1909  and  1910;  for  Albia,  Ames,  Cherokee  and  Glenwood  only  for  1911- 
1914. 

9.  Vogt,  Paul  L.,  ' '  Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology ' ',  pp.  204,  205. 

10.  United  States  Census,  Prisoners  and  Juvenile  Delinquents  in  In- 
stitutions, 1904,  pp.  204,  207. 

11.  United  States  Census,  1910,  Vol  IV,  Population  and  Occupation 
Statistics,  pp.  ,30,  40. 

12.  Cosson  Committee  Report,  p.  86. 

13.  Ensign,  F.  C,  ' '  County  and  City  Jails  in  Iowa, ' '  Report  of  Tenth 
Annual  Iowa  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction,  1909,  p.  40.  Iowa 
State  Report  for  1908  as  to  criminal  convictions,  p.  157. 

14.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population 
of  State  hospitals  for  inebriates  in  Part  II,  Division  T,  of  the  State  Board 
of  Control  reports  for  1905,  1908,  1910,  1912,  and  1914. 

15.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of 
State  hospital  for  inebriates,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  State  Board  of 
Control,  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914. 

16.  Based  for  1904-1905  upon  Table  263,  pp.  370-71  of  the  State  Board 
of  Control  report  for  1906,  for  1909-1914  upon  data  contained  in  the 
statistical  tables  as  to  the  population  of  the  State  hospitals  for  inebriates, 
in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  the  State  Boarrl  of  Control  reports  for  1910, 
1912,    1914. 

17.  Based  upon  data  in  the  biennial  reports  of  the  State  Board  of 
Control.  In  the  reports  published  in  1899,  1901,  1903,  this  data  is  found 
in  the  copies  of  the  reports  of  the  superintendents  of  the  industrial 
schools  printed  in  the  closing  section  of  the  book.  From  1905  to  date  the 
corresponding  figures  are  found  in  the  statistical  tables  as  to  industrial 
schools  contained  in  Part  IT,  Division  1,  of  the   State    Board  reports. 

18.  Spearman's  formula  gives  .314  as  the  coefficient  of  correlation  be- 
tween the  commitment  rate  and  urban  per  cent,  with  a  probable  error 
of  about  .043. 

19.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  the  statistical  tables  aa  to  industrial 


162  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

school  population  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  the  State  Board  of  Control 
reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914. 

20.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  the  statistical  tables  as  to  industrial 
school  population  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  the  State  Board  of  Control 
reports  for  1906,  1910,  1912,  and  1914. 

21.  Based  upon  Tables  1  and  2  (children  summoned  before  juvenile 
courts  by  counties)  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  IV  of  State  Board  of 
Control  reports,  1908-1914. 

22.  Based  upon  Tables  1  and  2  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  IV  of 
State  Board  of  Control  reports,  1908,  1914. 

2.3.  Spearman 's  formula  gives  a  correlation  of  .228  between  rank  in 
urban  per  cent  and  in  rate  of  juvenile  delinquency  with  a  probable  error 
of  .043.  Definite  correlation  is  proven  but  the  inadequacy  of  the  formula 
for  a  table  of  this  character  has  already  been  noted. 

24.  Based  upon  State  Board  of  Control  reports,  1912,  1914.  See  Note 
21   for  exact   references. 

25.  Based  upon  State  Board  of  Control  reports,  1912,  1914. 

26.  Vogt,  Paul  L.,  "Introduction  to  Eural  Sociology,"  pp.  205,  206. 

27.  Based  upon  State  Board  of  Control  report  ,1914,  p.  478,  corrected  by 
reference  to  financial  reports  of  certain  counties  and  by  correspondence 
with  County  officials.  See  also  McClenahan,  Bessie  A.,  "The  Iowa  Plan 
for  the  Combination  of  Public  and  Private  Relief,"  p.  29. 

28.  Based  upon  tables  as  to  character  of  population.  State  Board  of 
Control  reports,  1910,  1912,  1914,  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  II,  Table  4. 

29.  Based  upon  returns  from  a  questionnaire  sent  to  each  county  home 
steward. 

30.  Based  upon  tables  as  to  expenditures  for  poor  relief  by  counties  iu 
the  biennial  reports  of  State  auditor,  1910,  1912,   1914. 

31.  Based  upon  ranks  given  in  Tables  XVI  and  XVIII. 

82.  The  use  of  Spearman's  formula  gives  a  coefficient  of  .169  with  a 
probable  error  of  only  .043.  This  indicates  real  correlation  though  not  of 
a  high  degree. 

33.  None  of  the  statistical  tables  in  the  reports  of  the  State  Board 
of  Control  classify  epileptics  separately  from  the  insane  and  feeble-minded. 
During  the  period  covered  about  the  same  number  of  epileptics  have  been 
cared  for  in  the  state  institution  for  the  feeble-minded  and  in  the  hos- 
pitals for  the  insane.  To  secure  uniformity  in  statistical  treatment,  the 
epileptics   have  been   counted  as   half   insane   and   half   feeble-minded. 

34.  Sixth  Biennial  Report,  State  Board  of  Control,  pp.  34,  212. 

35.  Based  primarily  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to 
population  of  the  State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium  in  Part  II,  Division  I, 
of  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1908,  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916.  Sup- 
plementary data  was  secured  by  correspondence  with  heads  of  county  in- 
stitutions, and  from  Woodbury  County  Financial  Reports. 

36.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  poplation  of 
State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  of  State  Board  of 
Control  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     163 

37.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of 
State  Sanatorium  in  Part  TI,  Division  I,  of  State  Board  of  Control  re 
ports  for  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916.  Statistics  for  Clarinda  and  Chariton 
are  available  for  only  years  1909  and  1910,  those  for  Albia,  Ames,  Chero- 
kee, and  Glenwood  for  only  1911-1916.  The  rates  given  for  these  cities 
are  estimated  for  the  whole  period  calculated  directly  from  the  rates  in 
years  for  which  information  is  available. 

38.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of 
Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter 
I  of  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1901,  1903,  1905,  1906,  1910,  1912, 
1914,  1916,  and  upon  tables  as  to  character  of  population  of  county 
homes  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  II  of  the  same  reports.  The  1908 
report  contained  no  properly  classified  data  on  county  home  population 
other  than  the  insane.  Supplementary  data  was  secured  by  correspondence 
with  private  institutions  and  county  officers. 

39.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population 
of  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chap- 
ter I,  of  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1901,  1903,  1905,  1906,  1910, 
1912,  1914,  1916. 

40.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of 
Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chap- 
ter I  of  the  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916. 

41.  Based  upon  returns  from  a  questionnaire  sent  to  each  county 
home  steward. 

42.  Johnson,  Alexander,  '  *  The  Case  of  the  Nation  Against  the  Feeble- 
Minded,"  Survey,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1915),  pp.  136-137. 

43.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population 
of  the  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded  Children,  in  Part  II,  Division  I, 
Chapter  I  of  the  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1906,  1910,  1912, 
1914,  1916. 

Statistics  as  to  Chariton  and  Clarinda  are  available  for  only  the  three 
years,  1906,  1909,  1910;  those  at  Albia,  Ames,  Cherokee,  and  Glenwood 
for  only  the  years  1911-1916.  Estimated  totals  for  the  entire  period  are 
given  in  the  table,  as  calculated  directly  from  rates  in  the  years  for 
which   statistics  are  available. 

44.  Rogers,  A.  C,  "  Tlie  Problem  of  the  Feeble-Minded,"  Bulletin  of 
Iowa  Institutions,  Vol.  XIV  (1912),  p.  19. 

45.  Johnson,  Alexander,  "The  Case  of  the  Nation  vs.  the  Feeble- 
Minded,"  Survey,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1915),  pp.  136-137. 

46.  Ensign,  Forest  C.  "The  Care  of  the  Insane  in  Iowa,"  Bulletin 
0  flowa  Institutions,  Vol.  II  (1900),  1-31,  a  report  based  upon  personal  in- 
vestigation of  conditions.  See  also  Report  of  State  Board  of  Control,  1899, 
pp.  113,  122-126. 

47.  Reports  of  State  Board  of  Control,  1901,  p.  53,  aud  1903,  p.  28. 

48.  Report  of  State  Board  of  Control,  1916,  p.  38. 

49.  Based    for    state    institutions    upon    data    contained    in    statistical 


164  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

tables  as  to  population  of  state  hospitals  for  the  insane  in  Part  II,  Divis- 
ion I,  Chapter  I  of  the  State  Board  of  Control  reports,  1901-1906,  1910- 
1916 ;  for  county  institutions,  for  1901-1906,  1910-1912,  in  Part  II,  Division 
I,  Chapter  II  of  State  Board  of  Control  reports  for  1914  and  1916;  for 
private  institutions,  and  also  in  part  for  Clayton  County  hospital  for  in- 
sane, upon  data  secured  by  correspondence  with  those  institutions  and  with 
County  auditors,  and  from  county  financial  reports. 

50.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population 
of  State  hospitals  for  the  insane  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  I  of 
State  Board  of  Control  Eeports,  1901-1906. 

51.  Report  of  Commission  to  Investigate  the  Extent  of  Feeble-Minded- 
ness,  Epilepsy,  and  Insanity  and  Other  Conditions  of  Mental  Defective- 
ness in  Michigan,  1915,  pp.  17-18. 

52.  Vogt,  Paul  L.,  "Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology,"  pp.  179-180. 
Smith,  S.  G.,  ' '  Social  Pathology, ' '  p.  205. 

53.  For  sources  of  statistical  data  see  note  49.  For  certain  counties 
data  as  to  the  ratio  between  the  sexes  in  number  of  patients  sent  to 
private  hospitals  is  not  available.  Instead  estimates  were  used  based  on 
ratio  between  sexes  in  total  number  of  patients  in  private  hospitals.  Only 
a  small  proportion  of  the  counties  are  affected  in  this  way  and  the  num- 
ber of  patients  involved  makes  but  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  total, 

54.  Based  upon  data  contained  in  statistical  tables  as  to  population 
of  State  hospitals  for  insane  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  I  of  State 
Board  of  Control  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916. 

55.  Based  upon  returns  from  a  questionnaire  sent  to  county  home 
stewards. 

56.  Based  upon  data  in  the  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of  State 
hospitals  for  insane,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  I,  of  State  Board  of 
Control  reports  for  1906,  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916. 

Statistics  for  Chariton  and  Clarinda  are  available  for  only  the  three 
years,  1906,  1909,  1910;  those  for  Albia,  Ames,  Cherokee,  and  Glenwood 
for  only  the  years  1911-1916.  Estimated  rates  for  the  entire  period  are 
given  in  the  table,  as  calculated  directly  from  the  rates  for  the  years  for 
which  the  statistics  are  available. 

57.  Bureau  of  Census,  Bulletin  119,  Insane  and  Feeble-Minded  in  In- 
stitutions,  1910,    General   Table   14,   p.    36. 

58.  Report  of  Commission  on  Feeble-Mindedness,  Epilepsy,  and  Insan- 
ity in  Michigan,  p.  20.  Used  and  discussed  also  by  Vogt,  Paul  L.,  '  *  Intro- 
duction to  Rural  Sociology,"  pp.   178-179. 

59.  Based  on  data  in  Bulletin  119  of  Bureau  of  Census,  Insane  and 
Feeble-Minded  in  Institutions  1910,  General  Tables,  35  and  38,  pp.  73,  76. 

Vogt,  Paul  L.,  "Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology,"  pp.  177-178. 

60.  Based  as  to  per  cent  of  population  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage 
upon  Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement  for  Iowa,  Popu- 
lation, Table  I,  pp.  606  ff. ;  for  ranks  in  various  lines  of  social  infection 
upon  Tables  I,  II,  III,  VI,  IX,  XII,  XIII,  XIX,  XX,  XXIII,  XXVIII. 


DEPENDENTS,  DEFECTIVES,  DELINQUENTS     165 

61.  Based  as  to  per  cent  of  population  of  foreign  birth  or  pareatage 
upon  Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement  for  Iowa, 
Population,  Table  II,  pp.  624  ff.;  for  commitment  rates  upon  Tables  V, 
VIII,  XI,  XXII,  XXVII,  XXXIV. 

62.  Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement  for  Iowa, 
Population;  Table  I,  pp.  606  ff. 

63.  Based  as  to  per  cent  of  population  engaged  in  manufacturing  up- 
on Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement  for  Iowa,  Manu- 
factures, Table  III,  pp.  708-709;  as  to  rates  and  ranks  in  commitments 
upon  Tables  V,  VIII,  XI,  XXII,  XXVII,  XXXIV. 

64.  Based  as  to  per  cent  of  population  consisting  of  child  laborers  up- 
on Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement  for  Iowa,  Manu- 
factures, Table  III,  pp.  708-709,  as  to  industrial  school  commitments  up- 
on Table  XI. 

65.  Clopper,  ' '  Child  Labor  in  City  Streets, ' '  Chapter  VII,  ' '  Eelation  of 
Street  Work  to  Delinquency,"  especially  p.  176;  Mangold,  "Child  Prob- 
lems," p.  232;  Haynes,  "Child  Labor  Legisation  in  Iowa,"  in  "Applied 
History, ' '  Vol.  II,  pp.  569  ff. 

66.  Based  as  to  population  engaged  in  mining  upon  biennial  report 
of  State  Mine  Inspectors,  1910,  page  95,  table  for  year  ending  June  30, 
1910,  as  to  ranks  in  social  infection  upon  Tables  I,II,  III,  VI,  IX,  XII, 
XVI,  XVIII,  XIX,  XX,  XXIII,  XXVIII. 

67.  Mounts,  "A  Survey  of  Social  and  Economic  Conditions  in  a  Rural 
Township,"  p.  95. 

68.  Based  upon  Federal  Census  for  1910,  Abstract  with  Supplement 
for  Iowa,  Population,  Table  I,  pp.  606-ff.  and  upon  report  of  State  Census, 
1905,  General  Tables,  no.  13,  pp.  17-ff. 

69.  Stevenson,  S.  K.,  "Associated  Charities  in  Iowa:  a  General  Sur 
vey, "  in  proceedings  of  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  Iowa  State  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Correction,  pp.  131-134.  Wassam,  C.  W.,  "Or- 
ganized Charity  in  Iowa,"  in  Iowa  Journal  of  History  and  Politics,  Jan- 
uary 1906,  especially  pp.  90-91.  Directory  of  Charity  Oranization 
Societies,  January,  1916,  pp.  6-7.  Strictly  speaking  these  probation  officers 
are  county  and  not  city  officials.  Their  chief  field  for  activity,  however, 
lies  in  the  cities  named. 

70.  See  Table  XLVIII. 

71.  A  summary  of  Tables  IV,  VII,  X,  XVIT,  XXI,  XXV,  XXVT, 
XXXII,  and  XXXIII.  There  is  no  city  of  8,000-25,000  in  population 
covered. 

72.  Based  upon  data  in  the  statistical  tables  as  to  population  of  State 
hospitals  for  insane,  in  Part  II,  Division  I,  Chapter  I,  of  State  Board  of 
Control  reports  for  1910,  1912,  1914,  1916. 

73.  Based  upon  Tables  I,  II,  III,  VI,  IX,  XII,  XIX. 

74.  See  preceding  note  for  tables  used  as  basis. 

75.  Based  upon  Tables  V.  VIII,  XI. 

76.  Based  upon  Tables  XX,  XXIII,  XXVIIl. 


166  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA  STUDIES 

77.  Based  upon  Tables  XXII,  XXVII,  XXXIV. 

78.  Statement  by  R.  J.  Rhys,  State  mine  inspector,  quoted  in  Register 
and  Leader  for  June  3,  1916,  p.  2. 

79.  ' '  The  abolition  of  mining  camps  in  Iowa  is  recommended  by  the 
State  mine  inspectors  in  the  annual  report  of  the  State  mine  department, 
which  was  issued  Thursday. 

The  inspectors  recommend  that  the  miners  live  in  established  cities  and 
go  to  their  work  in  work  trains.  This  system  will  do  away  with  the  dirty, 
unimproved,  unsightly,  and  temporary  camps  where  the  miners  cannot 
have  comforts  and  their  children  can  not  be  properly  educated,  the  mine 
inspectors  assert. 

' '  In  discussing  the  abolition  of  the  coal  camp,  R.  J.  Rhys,  inspector,  of 
Ottumwa,  said: 

'  As  the  average  life  of  an  Iowa  coal  mine  is  8  years,  the  operators 
can  not  afford  to  put  up  modern  dwellings  for  the  miner.  Therefore 
the  average  coal  camp  is  a  bunch  of  small  frame  houses,  lacking  modern 
conveniences  and  without  improvements  of  any  kind.  It  makes  a  depress- 
ing place  to  live,  not  to  mention  the  unhealthy  conditions  and  the  lack  of 
educational  facilities  for  the  children. 

'  The  miners  are  a  fine  lot  of  men  and  they  are  entitled  to  live  under 
proper  conditions.  As  long  as  they  live  in  the  dirty  camps,  they  will  not 
be  given  the  consideration  due  them.  These  camps  degrade  the  miner 
physically,  mentally  and  morally. 

'  Why  not  allow  the  miners  to  live  in  established  towns  and  cities  where 
transportation  to  and  from  the  mines  is  possible  and  practical.  It  would 
be  better  than  to  build  impoverished  camps.  If  more  homes  for  workmen 
are  needed  could  they  not  be  built  as  a  part  or  an  addition  to  these  es- 
tablished communities?  The  miner's  children  then  will  have  educational 
advantages  equal  to  other  children  and  will  have  an  equal  chance  with 
other  youngsters  to  grow  up  and  make  good  in  the  world. ' — Quoted  from 
Register  and  Leader  for  June  3,  1916,  2. 


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